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t^jnubook  of 

MODERN  JAPAN 


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ERNEST  W:: CLEMENT 


A  HANDBOOK 
OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Uniform  with  this  Work 

JAPAN  AS  IT  WAS  AND  IS :  A  Hakiv 
BOOK  or  Old  Japak.  By  Richard 
HiLDRETH.  In  two  volumcs.  A  reprint 
edited  and  revised,  with  notes  and  ad- 
ditions, by  Ernest  W.  Clement  and  an 
Introduction  by  William  Elliot  Griffis. 
With  maps  and  100  illustrations.  12mo, 
in  slip  Case.     $3.00  net. 


A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 
Chicago 


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A  HANDBOOK 

OF 

MODERN  JAPAN 

BY 

ERNEST  W.  CLEMENT 

WITH   MAP  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS   FROM   PHOTOGRAPHS 

NINTH  EDITION 

THOROUGHLY   REVISED   AND   BROUGHT   DOWN   TO   DATE 
WITH  ADDITIONAL   CHAPTERS   ON 

THE  EUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR 

AND 

GREATER  JAPAN 


CHICAGO 

A.  C.  McCLURG  &  CO. 

1913 


.1]  5  ^!  5 


Copyright 

A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

1903;  1905;  1913 


Copyrighted  in  Great  Britain 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS     •      JOHN  WILSON 
AND  SON         •        CAMBRIDGE,  U.  S.  A. 


To  THE  Memory  of  my  Father 
AND  MY  Mother 


259980 


INTRODUCTION 

THIS  book,  as  its  title  indicates,  is  intended 
to  portray  Japan  as  it  is  rather  than  as  it 
was.  It  is  not  by  any  means  the  purpose, 
however,  to  ignore  the  past,  upon  which  the  present 
is  built,  because  such  a  course  would  be  both  foolish 
and  futile.  Moreover,  while  there  are  probably  no 
portions  of  Japan,  and  very  few  of  her  people,  en- 
tirely unaffected  by  the  new  civilization,  yet  there 
are  still  some  sections  which  are  comparatively  un- 
changed by  the  new  ideas  and  ideals.  And,  although 
those  who  have  been  least  affected  by  the  changes  are 
much  more  numerous  than  those  who  have  been  most 
influenced,  yet  the  latter  are  much  more  active  and 
powerful  than  the  former. 

In  Japan  reforms  generally  work  from  the  top  down- 
ward, or  rather  from  the  government  to  the  people. 
As  another^  has  expressed  it,  "the  government  is  the 
moulder  of  public  opinion " ;  and,  to  a  large  extent, 
at  least,  this  is  true.  We  must,  therefore,  estimate 
Japan's  condition  and  public  opinion,  not  according 
to  the  great  mass  of  her  peojple,  but  according  to 
the  "ruling  class,"  if  we  may  transfer  to  Modern 
Japan  a  term  of  Feudal  Japan.  For,  as  suffrage  in 
Japan  is  limited  by  the  amount  of  taxes  paid,  "the 

1  Miss  Bacon,  in  "  Japanese  Girls  and  Women." 


Viu  INTRODUCTION 

masses  "  do  not  yet  possess  the  franchise,  and  may  be 
said  to  be  practically  unconcerned  about  the  govern- 
ment. They  will  even  endure  heavy  taxation  and 
some  injustice  before  they  will  bother  themselves 
about  politics.  These  real  conservatives  are,  there- 
fore, a  comparatively  insignificant  factor  in  the  equa- 
tion of  New  Japan.  The  people  are  conservative,  but 
the  government  is  progressive. 

This  book  endeavors  to  portray  Japan  in  all  its 
features  as  a  modern  world  power.  It  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  cover  in  great  detail  all  the  ground  ou1> 
lined,  because  it  is  not  intended  to  be  an  exhaustive 
encyclopaedia  of  "things  Japanese."  It  is  expected 
to  satisfy  the  specialist,  not  by  furnishing  all  mate- 
rials, but  by  referring  for  particulars  to  works  where 
abundant  materials  may  be  found.  It  is  expected  to 
satisfy  the  average  general  reader,  by  giving  a  kind 
of  bird's-eye  view  of  Modern  Japan.  It  is  planned 
to  be  a  compendium  of  condensed  information,  with 
careful  references  to  the  best  sources  of  more  com- 
plete knowledge. 

Therefore,  a  special  and  very  important  feature  of 
the  volume  is  its  bibliography  of  reference  books  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter.  These  lists  have  been  prepared 
with  great  care,  and  include  practically  all  the  best 
works  on  Japan  in  the  English  language.  In  general, 
however,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  cover  magazine 
articles,  wliich  are  included  in  only  very  particular 
instances. 

There  are  two  very  important  works  not  included 
in  any  of  the  lists,  because  they  belong  to  almost  all ; 
they  are  omitted  merely  to  avoid  monotonous  repe- 
tition.    These   two   books  of   general   reference   are 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

indispensable  to  the  thorough  student  of  Japan  and 
the  Japanese.  Chamberlain's  "  Things  Japanese  "  ^ 
is  the  most  convenient  for  general  reference,  and  is  a 
small  encyclopaBdia.  "The  Mikado's  Empire,"^  by 
Dr.  Griffis,  is  a  thesaurus  of  information  about  Japan 
and  the  Japanese. 

After  these,  one  may  add  to  his  Japanese  library 
according  to  his  special  taste,  although  we  think 
that  Murray's  "Story  of  Japan,"  also,  should  be  in 
every  one's  hands.  Then,  if  one  can  afford  to  get 
Rein's  two  exhaustive  and  thorough  treatises,  he  is 
well  equipped.  And  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan  "  will  make  him  quite  a  savant  on 
Japanese  subjects.  It  should  be  added,  that  those 
who  have  access  to  Captain  Brinkley's  monumental 
work  of  eight  volumes  on  Japan  will  be  richly  re- 
warded with  a  mine  of  most  valuable  information  by 
one  of  the  best  authorities.  "  Fifty  Years  of  New 
Japan  "  is  valuable  and  unique,  because  it  is  written 
by  Japanese,  each  an  authority  in  his  department.^ 
For  the  latest  statistics,  "  The  Japan  Year  Book  "  is 
invaluable. 

We  had  intended,  but  finally  abandoned  the  at- 
tempt, to  follow  strictly  one  system  of  transliteration. 
Such  a  course  would  require  the  correction  of  quota- 
tions, and  seemed  scarcely  necessary.  Indeed,  the 
doctors  still  disagree,  and  have  not  yet  positively 
settled  upon   a  uniform   method  of   transliteration. 

1  Fifth  edition.  2  Twelfth  edition. 

2  If  any  are  inclined  to  delve  still  more  deeply  into  any  of  these 
topics,  they  will  find  further  references  in  the  books  in  the  lists,  espe- 
cially in  "  Things  Japanese."  And  the  most  complete  treatment  of 
this  subject  is  found  in  Wenckstern's  "  Bibliography  of  Japan." 
Poole's  Index  is  also  valuable. 


X  INTRODUCTION 

After  all,  there  is  no  great  difference  between  Tokio 
and  Tokyo;  kaisha  and  kwaisha;  lyeyasu  and  leyasu; 
Kyiishiu,  Kiushiu,  Kyiishu,  and  Kiiishu.  There  is 
more  divergency  between  Ryukyu,  Riukiii,  Liukiu, 
Luchu,  and  Loo  Choo ;  but  all  are  in  such  general  use 
that  it  would  be  unwise,  in  a  book  like  this,  to  try  to 
settle  a  question  belonging  to  specialists.  The  fittest 
will,  in  time,  survive.  We  have,  however,  drawn  the 
line  on  "  Yeddo,"  "  Jeddo,"  and  similar  archaisms  and 
barbarisms,  for  which  there  is  neither  jot  nor  tittle  of 
reason.  But  it  is  hoped  that  the  varieties  of  trans- 
literation in  this  book  are  too  few  to  confuse. 

The  author  is  under  special  obligations  to  Professor 
J.  H.  Wigmore,  formerly  a  teacher  in  Tokyo,  and  now 
Dean  of  the  Northwestern  Law  School,  Chicago,  for 
kind  criticisms  and  suggestions ;  to  Mr.  Frederick  W. 
Gookin,  the  art  critic,  of  Chicago,  for  similar  assist- 
ance, and  for  the  chapter  on  "  Esthetic  Japan,"  which 
is  entirely  his  composition;  and  also  under  general 
obligations  for  the  varied  assistance  of  many  friends, 
too  numerous  to  mention,  in  Japan  and  America.  He 
has  endeavored  to  be  accurate,  but  doubts  not  that  he 
has  made  mistakes.  He  only  asks  that  the  book  be 
judged  merely  for  what  it  claims  to  be,  —  a  Rand- 
book  of  Modern  Japan. 

Ernest  Wilson  Clement. 


NOTE  TO  NEW  REVISED   EDITION 

THE  eight  years  which  have  elapsed  since 
this  book  was  revised  have  been  so  crowded 
with  great  events  that  another  revision  seems 
advisable  in  order  to  make  the  book  yet  more  timely 
and  as  valuable  as  possible.  Whenever  it  was  prac- 
ticable, the  statements  and  statistics  in  both  the  body 
and  the  appendix  of  the  book  have  been  brought  up  to 
date.  In  some  cases,  but  only  a  very  few,  it  was  im- 
possible to  alter  the  text  without  breaking  up  the  pag- 
ing ;  therefore  the  original  text  was  allowed  to  stand, 
and  the  corrections  have  been  indicated  in  notes  or 
some  other  way.  A  new  chapter,  moreover,  has  been 
added,  with  new  illustrations,  and  presents  as  con- 
cisely and  yet  as  comprehensively  as  possible  the 
facts  which  warrant  its  caption,  "Greater  Japan." 

Tokyo,  January,  1913. 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  Paoe 

I.    Physiography 1 

II.    Industrial  Japan 16 

III.  Travel,  Transportation,  Commerce  ...  29 

IV.  People,  Houses,  Food,  Dress 44 

V.    Manners  and  Customs 60 

VI.    Japanese  Traits 76 

VII.    History  (Old  Japan) 90 

Vlir.    History  (New  Japan) 102 

IX.    Constitutional  Imperialism 118 

X.    Local  Self-Government 133 

XI.    Japan  as  a  World  Power 146 

XII.    Legal  Japan 159 

XIII.  The  New  Woman  in  Japan 175 

XIV.  Language  and  Literature 191 

XV.    Education 209 

XVI.    Esthetic  Japan 222 

XVII.    Disestablishment  of  Shinto 237 

XVIII.    Confucianism,  BushidO,  Buddhism  ....  250 

XIX.    Japanese  Christendom 262 

XX.    Twentieth  Century  Japan 277 

XXI.    The  Mission  of  Japan 289 

THE   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR 305 

GREATER  JAPAN 329 

APPENDIX 343 

INDEX 415 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 
The  Late  Emperor  Meiji  Tenno  ....      Frontispiece 

Nagasaki  Harbor 10 

Lighthouse  Inland  Sea 10 

Cotton  Mills,  Osaka 20 

Eirst  Bank,  Tokyo ,  .     •  38 

Baron  Shibusawa 42 

Group  of  Country  People 46 

New  Year's  Greeting .  64 

Garden  at  Oji 78 

Osaka  Castle 92 

Perry  Monument,  near  Uraga 106 

Statesmen  of  New  Japan :  Prince  Sanjo  and  Count 

Katsu 116 

Departments  of  State  :  Navy,  Agriculture  and  Com- 
merce, Justice,  Foreign  Affairs        126 

Naval  Leaders  of  Japan :  Admiral   Enomoto,  Ad- 
miral Kabayama 136 

Distinguished  Land  Commanders:    General  Baron 
Kuroki,    General    Baron    Oku,    General    Baron 

Nodzu 146 

Military  Leaders   of   New   Japan:    Field-Marshal 

Oyama  and  Field-Marshal  Yamagata     ....  150 
Statesmen  of  New  Japan :  Count  Oku  ma.  Marquis 

Inouye,  Count  Itagaki,  Marquis  Matsukata    .     .  156 

Court  Buildings,  Tokyo 164 

The  Mint,  Osaka 164 


XVI  ILLUSTRATIONS 

_  Page 
Statesmen  of  New  Japan  :  Okubo,  Saigo,  Kido,  and 

Prince  Iwakura 172 

H.  I.  M.  the  Empress 188 

H.  I.  M.  the  Crown  Prince 196 

Imperial  University  Buildings,  Tokyo 210 

Educators  and  Scientists  of  Japan :  Baron  Ishiguro, 

Viscount  Mori,  Mr.  Fukuzawa,  Dr.  Kitasato   .     .  216 

Painting  by  Ho-Itsu  :  View  of  Fuji-San    ....  224 

Painting  by  Yasunobu:  Heron  and  Lotus      .     .     .  230 

Group  of  Pilgrims 252 

Buddhist  Priests 252 

Gospel  Ship,  "FukuinMaru" 268 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Summer  School,  Doshisha,  Kyoto   .     .  268 
Four  Gates :  Palace,  Tokyo  ;  Palace,  Kyoto ;  Saku- 

rada,  Tokyo;  Nij 6  Castle,  Kyoto 282 

The  Naval  Hero  of  the  War,  Admiral  Togo  ...  306 
Distinguished  Naval  Commanders:   Admiral  Uriu, 

Admiral  Kamimura,  Commander  Hirose     .     .     .  310 
Distinguished  Land  Commanders:    General  Baron 
Kodama,   General  Count  Nogi,   Admiral  Prince 

Ito 316 

The  Japanese  Peace  Envoys :  Count  Komura,  Min- 
ister Takahira 318 

H.  I.  M.  the  Emperor 330 

Marquis  Saionji 332 

Statesmen  of  New  Japan :    Marquis  Katsura  and 

Prince  Ito 336 

Viscount  Sone 338 

General  Viscount  Terauchi 344 

Military  Review,  Himeji 360 

**  Shikishima"  in  Naval  Review,  Kobe      ....  384 

Map  of  Japan 342 


JAPANESE  PRONUNCIATION 


alike  a  in  father 

ai  as  in  a/s/g 

c    "     e   "   men 

ei      "     W7ei^^ 

i    "     i    «  pin 
0    "     0    "  pony 

aw)           .    . 
_    ^  as  0  m  bon 

u  "     00 "   book 

u  as  00  in  moon 

i  in  the  middle  of  a  word  and  u  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
a  word  are  sometimes  almost  inaudible. 

The  consonants  are  all  sounded,  as  in  English :  g,  however,  has 
only  the  hard  sound,  as  in  give,  although  the  nasal  ng  is  often 
heard ;  ch  and  s  are  always  soft,  as  in  check  and  sin ;  and  z  before 
M  has  the  sound  of  dz.  In  the  case  of  double  consonants,  each  one 
must  be  given  its  full  sound. 

There  are  as  many  syllables  as  vowels.  There  is  practically 
no  accent ;  but  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  o  and 
0,  u  and  u,  of  which  the  second  is  more  prolonged  than  the  first. 

Be  sure  to  avoid  the  flat  sound  of  a,  which  is  always  prO' 
nounced  ah. 


A   HANDBOOK 

OF 

MODERN    JAPAN 

CHAPTER  I 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Situation  of  country ;  relation  to  the  United 
States ;  lines  of  communication  ;  **  Key  of  Asia."  —  Area  of  em- 
pire. —  Divisions  :  highways,  provinces,  prefectures,  principal  cities 
and  ports.  —  Dense  population ;  natives  and  foreigners ;  Japanese 
abroad. —  Mountains,  volcanoes,  hot  springs,  earthquakes. — Lakes, 
rivers,  bays,  harbors,  floods,  tidal  waves.  —  Epidemics,  pests.—  Cli- 
mate :  temperature,  winds  (typhoons),  moisture,  ocean  currents. 
—  Flora  and  fauna.  —  Peculiar  position :  Japan  and  the  United 
States.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  Japanese  may  appropriately  be  called 
"our  antipodal  neighbors."  They  do  not 
live,  it  is  true,  at  a  point  exactly  opposite 
to  us  on  this  globe;  but  they  belong  to  the  obverse, 
or  Eastern,  hemisphere,  and  are  an  Oriental  people 
of  another  race.  They  are  separated  from  us  by  from 
4,000  to  5,000  miles  of  the  so-called,  but  misnamed. 
Pacific  Ocean ;  but  they  are  connected  with  us  by 
many  lines  of  freight  and  passenger  vessels.  In  fact, 
in  their  case,  as  in  many  other  instances,  the  "  disunit- 
ing ocean  "  (  Oceanus  dissociabilis)  of  the  Romans  has 
1  1 


2  A  HANI/BOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

really  disappeared,  and  even  a  broad  expanse  of  waters 
has  become  a  connecting  link  between  the  countries 
on  the  opposite  shores.  It  may  be,  in  a  certain 
measure,  correct  to  say,  as  pupils  in  geography  are 
taught  to  express  it,  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  separates 
the  United  States  from  Japan ;  but  it  is,  in  a  broader 
and  higher  sense,  just  as  accurate  to  state  that  this 
ocean  binds  us  with  our  Asiatic  neighbors  and  friends 
in  the  closest  ties.  Japan  was  "opened"  by  the 
United  States;  has  been  assisted  materially,  politi- 
cally, socially,  educationally,  and  morally  by  Ameri- 
can influences  in  her  wonderful  career  of  progress; 
and  she  appreciates  the  kindliness  and  friendship  of 
our  people.  We,  in  turn,  ought  to  know  more  about 
our  rapidly  developing  prot^ge^  and  no  doubt  de- 
sire to  learn  all  we  can  concerning  Japan  and  the 
Japanese. 

The  development  of  trade  and  commerce  has  been 
assisted  by  the  power  of  steam  to  bring  Japan  and 
the  United  States  into  close  and  intimate  relations. 
There  are  steamship  lines  from  San  Francisco,  Van- 
couver, Tacoma,  Seattle,  Portland,  and  San  Diego 
1/  to  Yokohama  or  Kobe ;  and  there  are  also  a  great 
many  sailing  vessels  plying  between  Japan  and 
America.  The  routes  from  San  Francisco  and  San 
Diego  direct  to  Japan  are  several  hundred  miles 
farther  than  the  routes  from  the  more  northerly  ports 
mentioned  above.  The  time  occupied  by  the  voyage 
across  the  Pacific  Ocean  varies  according  to  the  ves- 
sel, the  winds  and  currents,  etc. ;  but  it  may  be  put 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  3 

dowD  in  a  general  way  at  about  14  days.  The  fast 
royal  mail  steamers  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  line  often 
make  the  trip  in  much  less  time,  and  thus  bring 
Chicago,  for  instance,  within  only  a  little  more  than 
two  weeks'  communication  with  Yokohama.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  evident  that  Japan  is  no  longer  a  re- 
mote country,  but  is  as  near  to  the  Pacific  coast  of 
America,  in  time  of  passage,  as  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  America  was  twenty  years  ago  to  Europe. 

It  is  true  that  the  steamers  of  the  San  Francisco 
and  San  Diego  lines,  especially  those  carrying  mails 
and  passengers,  go  and  come  via  Honolulu,  so  that 
the  voyage  to  Japan  thus  requires  a  few  more  days 
than  the  direct  trip  would  take.  But,  as  Hawaii  is 
now  part  of  the  United  States,  our  country  has 
thus  become  only  about  10  days  distant  from  Japan. 
Moreover,  as  the  Philippine  Islands  are  also  a  por- 
tion of  our  country,  and  Formosa  has  been  for  several 
years  a  part  of  Japan,  the  territories  of  the  two  na- 
tions are  brought  almost  within  a  stone's  throw,  and 
the  people  almost  within  speaking  distance,  of  each 
other.  This  proximity  of  the  two  nations  to  each 
other  should  be  an  incentive  to  draw  even  more 
closely  together  the  ties,  not  only  historical,  com- 
mercial, and  material,  but  also  political,  social,  edu- 
cational, intellectual,  moral,  and  religious,  that  bind 
them  to  each  other,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  to  make 
"Japan  and  America  all  the  same  heart." 

But  Japan  is  also  an  Asiatic  country,  and  thus 
holds   a   peculiar  relation   to   the   countries   on   the 


4     A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

eastern  coast  of  the  mainland  of  Asia.  The  islands 
of  Japan  stretch  along  that  shore  in  close  proximity 
to  Siberia,  Korea,  and  China,  and  are  not  far  distant 
from  Siam.  With  all  of  those  countries  she  enters, 
therefore,  into  most  intimate  relationship  of  many- 
kinds.  With  Russia  the  relation  is  one  of  rivalry, 
of  more  or  less  hostility,  at  present  passive,  but 
likely  to  be  aroused  into  activity  by  some  unusually 
exasperating  event.  In  any  case,  Japan  is  the  only 
Far-Eastern  power  that  can  be  relied  upon  to  check 
the  aggressions  of  Russia;  and  this  fact  the  wise 
statesmen  of  Great  Britain  have  clearly  recognized  by 
entering  into  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance.  Toward 
Korea,  China,  and  Siam,  Japan  sustains  a  natural 
position  of  leadership,  because  she  is  far  in  advance 
of  all  those  nations  in  civilization.  Ties  geographi- 
cal, racial,  social,  political,  intellectual,  and  reli- 
gious, bind  them  more  or  less  closely  together,  so  that 
Japan  can  more  sympathetically  and  thus  more  easily 
lead  them  out  into  the  path  of  progress.  The  natural 
and  common  routes  of  trade  and  travel  from  the 
United  States  to  those  countries  run  via  Japan, 
which  thus  becomes,  in  more  senses  than  one,  "the 
key  of  Asia";  and  for  that  very  reason  she  is  also 
the  logical  mediator  between  the  East  and  the 
West. 

The  Japanese  call  their  country  Dai  Nikon,  or 
Dai  Nippon  (Great  Japan),  and  have  always  had  a 
patriotic  faith  in  the  reality  of  its  greatness.  But 
this  delightful  delusion  is  rudely  dispelled  when  the 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  6 

fact  is  expressed  statistically,  in  cold  figures,  that 
the  area  of  the  Empire  of  Japan  is  about  175,000 
square  miles,^  or  only  a  little  more  than  that  of  Cali- 
fornia. It  has,  however,  a  comparatively  long  coast 
line  of  more  than  18,000  miles.  The  name  Nihon^ 
or  Nippon  (a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  Jih-pen^  from 
which  was  derived  "Japan"),  means  *' sun-source," 
and  was  given  because  the  country  lay  to  the  east 
from  China.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  Japan  is 
often  called  "  The  Sunrise  Kingdom,"  and  that  the 
Imperial  flag  contains  the  simple  design  of  a  bright 
sun  on  a  plain  white  background.^ 

Jgpan  proper  comprises  only  the  four  large  islands, 
called  Hondo,  Shikoku,  Kyushiu,  and  Yezo  (Hok- 
kaido); but  the  Empire  includes  also  Korea,  For- 
mosa, the  Pescadores,  and  about  4,000  small  islands, 
of  which  the  Ryukjni  (Loo  Choo)  and  the  Kurile 
groups  are  the  most  important.  Japan  proper  lies 
mainly  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  ^  as  the 
States  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  presents  even 
more  various  and  extreme  climates  than  may  be  found 
from  Minnesota  to  Louisiana. 

The  extreme  northern  point  of  the  Empire  of 
Japan  is  50°  56'  N.,  and  the  extreme  southern  point  is 
21°  45'  N.  The  extreme  eastern  point  is  156°  32'  E., 
and  the  extreme  western  point  119°  18'  E.  These 
extremes  furnish   even  greater  varieties  of  climate 

1  Including  half  of  Sakhalin,  but  not  Korea. 

2  Another  design  shows  the  sun's  rays  shooting  out  from  the  sun 
in  the  centre. 

8  24*'  14'-45«  30'  N. 


«     A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

than  those  just  mentioned.  The  Kurile  Islands  at 
the  extreme  north  are  frigid,  and  have  practi- 
cally no  animal  or  vegetable  life;  while  the  beau- 
tiful island  of  Formosa  at  the  extreme  south  is  half 
in  the  tropics,  with  a  corresponding  climate,  and 
abounds  in  most  valuable  products.  Marcus  Island, 
farther  out  in  the  Pacific,  has  guano  deposits  worth 
working. 

Japan  proper  is  divided  geographically  into  nine 
"circuits,"  called  Gokinai,  Tokaido,  Tosando,  Hoku- 
rikudo,  Sanindo,  Sanyodo,  Nankaido,  Saikaido,  Hok- 
kaido. The  word  do,  which  appears  in  all  the  names 
except  the  first,  means  "road"  or  "highway."  Some 
of  these  appellations  are  not  much  used  at  present; 
but  others  are  retained  in  various  connections,  espe- 
cially in  the  names  of  railways,  banks,  companies, 
or  schools.  A  common  official  division  of  the  largest 
island  (Rondo)  is  into  Central,  Northern,  and  West- 
ern. Japan  proper  was  also  subdivided  into  85  Kuni 
(Province),  the  names  of  which  are  still  retained  in 
general  use  to  some  extent.  But,  for  purposes  of 
administration,  the  empire  is  divided  into  3  Fu 
(Municipality)  and  43  Ken  (Prefecture),  besides  Yezo 
(or  Hokkaido)  and  Formosa,  each  of  which  is  ad- 
ministered as  a  "  territory  "  or  "colony."  The  dis- 
tinction between  Fto  and  Ken  is  practically  one  in 
name  only.  These  large  divisions  are  again  divided: 
the  former  into  Ku  (Urban  District)  and  Gun  (Rural 
District) ;  and  the  latter  into  Gim.  There  are  also 
more  than  50  incorporated  Cities  (Shi)  within  the  Fu 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  7 

and  JCen.'^  Moreover,  the  Gun  is  subdivided  into 
Cho  (Town)  and  Son  (Village). 

But,  while  the  prefix  "great"  does  not  apply  to 
Japan  with  reference  to  its  extent,  it  is  certainly 
appropriate  to  the  contents  of  that  country.  Within 
the  Empire  of  Japan  are  great  mountains  with  grand 
scenery,  great  and  magnificent  temples,  great  cities, 
and  a  great  many  people.  For,  while  the  area  of 
Japan  is  only  one-twentieth  of  that  of  the  United 
States,  the  population  is  about  one -half  as  numerous. 
Even  in  the  country  districts  the  villages  are  almost 
continuous,  so  that  it  is  an  infrequent  experience  to 
ride  a  mile  without  seeing  a  habitation;  and  in  the 
large  cities  the  people  are  huddled  very  closely  to- 
gether. The  latest  official  statistics,  those  of  1909, 
give  the  total  population  of  Japan  as  53,500,000,  of 
whom  the  males  exceed  the  females  by  about  600,000 ; 
and  as  of  late  years  the  annual  increase  has  amounted 
to  about  700,000,  the  present  population  (1912)  may 
fairly  be  estimated  at  more  than  55,000,000.^ 

The  number  of  foreigners  resident  in  Japan  in 
1909  exceeded  17,000,  of  whom  more  than  half  were 
Chinese,  and  less  than  a  quarter  were  British  and 
American.  The  number  of  Japanese  in  1909  living 
abroad  was  301,000,  of  whom  100,000  were  in  the 
United  States  (chiefly  in  Hawaii),  97,000  in  China, 
and  only  a  few  in  British  territory. 

Japan  is  a  mountainous  country.   The  level  ground, 

1  There  is  a  Tokyo  Shi,  for  instance,  in  Tokyd  Fu.  See  Appen- 
dix for  lists  of  Kuni  and  Ken.  2  Except  Korea. 


8     A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

including  artificial  terraces,  is  barely  12  per  cent  of 
the  area  of  the  whole  empire.  A  long  range  of  high 
mountains  runs  like  a  backbone  through  the  main 
island.  The  highest  peak  is  the  famous  Fuji,  which 
rises  12,365  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  is  a  "dor- 
mant volcano,"  whose  last  eruption  occurred  in  1708. 
Its  summit  is  covered  with  snow  about  ten  months 
in  the  year.^  There  are  several  other  peaks  of  more 
than  8,000  feet  elevation,  such  as  Mitake,  Akashi, 
Shirane,  Komagatake,  Aso,  Asama,  Bandai,  some  of 
which  are  active  volcanoes.  Eruptions  happen  not 
infrequently;  and  earthquakes,  more  or  less  severe, 
registered  by  the  seismometer,  are  of  daily  occur- 
rence, although  most  of  the  shocks  are  not  ordinarily 
perceptible.  There  are  also  several  excellent  hot 
springs,  of  sulphuric  or  other  mineral  quality,  as  at 
Ikao,  Kusatsu,  Atami,  Hakone,  Arima,  Onsen.  The 
mountainous  character  of  Japan  has  also  its  pleasant 
features,  because  it  furnishes  means  of  escape  from 
the  depressing  heat  of  summer.  Karuizawa,  Nikko, 
Miyanoshita,  Hakone,  Arima,  Chtizenji  are  the  most 
popular  summer  resorts. 

There  are  not  many,  or  large,  lakes  in  Japan. 
Lake  Biwa,  50  miles  long  and  20  miles  wide  at  its 
widest  point,  is  the  largest  and  most  famous.  Ha- 
kone Lake,  the  "Asiatic  Loch  Lomond,"  is  beautiful, 
and  especially  noted  for  the  reflection  of  Mount  Fuji 
in  its  water  by  moonlight.  Lake  Chuzenji,  in  the 
Nikko  mountains,   is  regarded  by  many  as  "unri- 

1  Niitaka,  or  Mt.  Morrison,  in  Formosa,  is  about  13,000  feet  high. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  9 

Tailed  for  beauty"  and  "hardly  surpassed  in  any 
land." 

There  are  many  beautiful  waterfalls,  such  as 
Kegon,  Urami,  and  others  in  the  Nikko  district, 
Nunobiki  at  Kobe,  Nachi  in  Kii,  etc. 

There  are  numerous  rivers,  short  and  swift;  and 
it  is  these  streams,  which,  after  a  rainy  season, 
swelling  and  rushing  impetuously  down  from  the 
mountains,  overflow  their  sandy  banks  and  cause 
annually  a  terrible  destruction  of  life  and  property. 
The  most  important  rivers  are  the  Tone,  the  Shinano, 
the  Kiso,  the  Kitakami,  the  Tenryu,  in  the  main 
island,  and  the  Ishikari  in  Yezo.  The  last  is  the 
longest  (about  400  miles) ;  the  next  is  the  Shinano 
(almost  250  miles);  but  no  other  river  comes  up 
even  to  200  miles  in  length.  The  Tenryu-gawa  ^  is 
famous  for  its  rapids.  Some  of  these  rivers  are 
n'avigable  by  small  steamers. 

Japan,  with  its  long  and  irregular  coast  line,  is 
particularly  rich  in  bays  and  harbors,  both  natural 
and  artificial,  which  furnish  shelter  for  the  shipping 
of  all  kinds.  The  "open  ports,"  which  formerly 
numbered  only  6  (Nagasaki,  Yokohama,  Hakodate, 
Osaka,  Kobe,  Niigata),  have  reached  the  figure  36; 
and  the  growing  foreign  commerce  annually  demands 
further  enlargement.  Of  the  old  ports,  Niigata  is 
of  no  special  importance  in  foreign  commerce ;  but, 
of  the  new  ports,  Kuchinotsu  in  Kyushiu,  Muroran 
in  Yezo  (Hokkaido),  and  especially  Bakan  and  Moji, 

1  Kawa,  or  gawa  in  composition,  means  "  river." 


10    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

on  opposite  sides  of  tlie  Straits  of  Shimonoseki,  are 
rapidly  growing.  In  this  connection  it  is,  perhaps, 
not  inappropriate  to  make  mention  of  the  far-famed 
"Inland  Sea,"  known  to  the  Japanese  as  Seto-no-uchi 
(Between  the  Straits),  or  Seto-uchi,  which  lies  be- 
tween the  main  island,  Shikoku  and  Kyushiu. 

The  long  coast  line  of  Japan  is  a  source  of  dan- 
ger; for  tidal  waves  occasionally  spread  devastation 
along  the  shore.  These,  with  floods,  earthquakes, 
eruptions,  typhoons,  and  conflagrations,  make  a 
combination  of  calamities  which  annually  prove  very 
disastrous  in  Japan. 

The  country  is  subject  to  epidemics,  like  dysen- 
tery, smallpox,  cholera,  plague,  and  "La  Grippe," 
which  generally  prove  quite  fatal.  In  1890,  for 
instance,  some  50,000  Japanese  were  attacked  by 
cholera,  and  about  30,000  died;  and  during  two 
seasons  of  the  "  Russian  epidemic "  large  numbers 
of  Japanese  were  carried  away.  In  both  cases  the 
foreigners  living  in  Japan  enjoyed  comparative  im- 
munity. And  now,  on  account  of  the  advance  in 
medical  science,  more  stringent  quarantine,  and 
better  sanitary  measures,  the  mortality  among  Jap- 
anese has  been  considerably  diminished.  This  for- 
tunate result  is  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  such 
men  as  Dr.  Kitasato,  whose  fame  as  a  bacteriologist 
is  world-wide.  The  zoological  pests  of  Japan  are 
fleas,  mosquitoes,  and  rats,  all  of  which  are  very 
troublesome;  but  modern  improvements  minimize 
the  extent  of  their  power. 


NAGASAKI    HAKBOR,   AND    LIGHTHOUSE   INLAND    SEA 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  11 

But,  in  spite  of  the  drawbacks  just  enumerated, 
Japan  is  a  beautiful  spot  for  residence.  "  The  aspect 
of  nature  in  Japan  .  .  .  comprises  a  variety  of  savage 
hideousness,  appalling  destructiveness,  and  almost 
heavenly  beauty."  The  climate,  though  somewhat 
debilitating,  is  fairly  salubrious,  and  on  the  whole 
is  very  delightful.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  not  so  great  as  in  Chicago,  for  instance,  but 
are  rendered  more  intolerable  and  depressing  by  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  No  month  is  exempt 
from  rain,  which  is  most  plentiful  from  June  on 
through  September;  and  those  two  months  are  the 
schedule  dates  for  the  two  "rainy  seasons."  Septem- 
ber is  also  liable  to  bring  a  terrible  typhoon.  Except 
in  the  northern,  or  in  the  mountainous,  districts, 
snow  is  infrequent  and  light,  and  fogs  are  rare. 
The  spring  is  the  most  trying,  and  the  autumn  the 
most  charming  season  of  the  year.^ 

On  account  of  the  extent  of  Japan  from  north  to 
south,  the  wide  differences  of  elevation  and  depres- 
sion, and  the  influence  of  monsoons  and  ocean 
currents,  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  climate. 
For  instance,  the  eastern  coast,  along  w^hich  runs 
the  Kuro  Shio  (Black  Stream),  with  a  moderating 
influence  like  that  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  much 
warmer  than  the  western  coast,  which  is  swept  by 
Siberian  breezes  and  Arctic  currents.  The  exces- 
sive humidity  is  due  to  the  insular  position  and 
heavy  rainfall.     Almost  all  portions  of  the  country 

1  See  also  meteorological  tables  in  Appendix. 


12    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

are  subject  more  or  less  to  sudden  changes  ot 
weather.  It  is  also  said  that  there  is  in  the  air  a 
great  lack  of  ozone  (only  about  one-third  as  much 
as  in  most  Western  lands) ;  and  for  this  reason  Occi- 
dentals at  least  are  unable  to  carry  on  as  vigorous 
physical  and  mental  labor  as  in  the  home  lands. 
Foreign  children,  however,  seem  to  thrive  well  in 
Japan. 

"  Roughly  speaking,  the  Japanese  summer  is  hot 
and  occasionally  wet;  September  and  the  first  half 
of  October  much  wetter;  the  late  autumn  and  early 
winter  cool,  comparatively  dry,  and  delightful ;  Feb- 
ruary and  March  disagreeable,  with  occasional  snow 
and  dirty  weather,  which  is  all  the  more  keenly 
felt  in  Japanese  inns  devoid  of  fireplaces;  the  late 
spring  rainy  and  windy,  with  beautiful  days  inter- 
spersed. But  different  years  vary  greatly  from  each 
other."! 

In  Japan  "a  rich  soil,  a  genial  climate,  and  a 
sufficient  rainfall  produce  luxuriant  vegetation"  of 
the  many  varieties  of  the  three  zones  over  which  the 
country  stretches.  In  Formosa,  Kyushiu,  Shikoku, 
and  the  Ryukyu  Islands,  "  the  general  aspect  is  tropi- 
cal"; on  the  main  island  the  general  appearance  is 
temperate ;  while  Yezo  and  the  Kurile  Islands  begin 
to  be  quite  frigid.  The  commonest  trees  are  the 
pine,  cedar,  maple,  oak,  lacquer,  camphor,  camellia, 

1  This  quotation  is  from  Murray's  "  Hand-Book  for  Japan  "  by 
Chamberlain  and  Mason.  The  Introduction  of  that  book  contains 
most  valuable  practical  information  for  prospective  travellers  in 
Japan. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  13 

plum,  peach,  and  cherry;  but  the  last  three  are 
grown  for  their  flowers  rather  than  for  their  fruit 
or  wood.  The  bamboo,  which  grows  abundantly, 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants,  and  is  extensively 
employed  also  in  ornamentation. 

In  the  fauna  of  Japan  we  do  not  find  such  great 
variety.  Fish  and  other  marine  life  are  very  abun- 
dant; fresh-water  fish  are  also  numerous;  and  all 
these  furnish  both  livelihood  and  living  to  millions 
of  people.  Birds  are  also  quite  numerous ;  and  some 
of  them,  like  the  so-called  "nightingale"  (uguisu), 
are  sweet  singers.  The  badger,  bear,  boar,  deer, 
fox,  hare,  and  monkey  are  found;  cats,  chickens, 
dogs,  horses,  oxen,  rats,  and  weasels  are  numerous; 
but  sheep  and  goats  are  rare.  Snakes  and  lizards 
are  many ;  but  really  dangerous  animals  are  compara- 
tively few,  except  the  foxes  and  badgers,  which  are 
said  to  have  the  power  to  bewitch  people! 

In  conclusion,  attention  should  be  called  once  more 
to  the  physiographical  advantages  of  Japan,  and 
it  may  be  of  interest  to  set  them  forth  from  the  point 
of  view  of  a  Japanese  who  has  indulged  in  some 
prognostications  of  the  future  of  his  nation.  From 
the  insular  position  of  Japan,  he  assumes  an  adapta- 
bility to  commerce  and  navigation ;  from  the  situation 
of  Japan,  "on  the  periphery  of  the  land  hemisphere," 
and  thus  at  a  safe  distance  from  "the  centre  of 
national  animosities,"  he  deems  her  comparatively 
secure  from  "the  depredations  of  the  world's  most 
conquering  nations" ;   from  the  direction  of  her  chief 


14    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mountain  system  (her  backbone),  and  "  the  variegated 
configurations  of  her  surface,"  he  thinks  that  "na- 
tional unity  with  local  independence  "  may  easily  be 
developed.  Likewise,  because  more  indentations  are 
found  on  the  eastern  than  on  the  western  sides  of  the 
Japanese  islands,  except  in  the  southwestern  island 
of  Kyushiu,  where  the  opposite  is  true ;  because  the 
ports  of  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  British 
Columbia  are  open  toward  Japan ;  because  the  Hoang- 
Ho,  the  Yangtze  Kiang,  and  the  Canton  rivers  all 
flow  and  empty  toward  Japan;  because  the  latter 
thus  "turns  her  back  on  Siberia,  but  extends  one 
arm  toward  America  and  the  other  toward  China  and 
India  " ;  because  "  winds  and  currents  seem  to  imply 
the  same  thing  [by]  making  a  call  at  Yokohama 
almost  a  necessity  to  a  vessel  that  plies  between  the 
two  continents,"  —  he  conceives  of  his  native  country 
as  a  nahodo  (middleman,  or  arbiter)  "between  the 
democratic  West  and  the  Imperial  East,  between  the 
Christian  America  and  the  Buddhist  Asia. " 

But  since  these  comparisons  were  made,  the  geog- 
raphy of  Eastern  Asia  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  has 
been  altered.  Japan  has  acquired  Formosa  and  Ko- 
rea; the  United  States  has  assumed  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  Philippines;  and  China  is  threatened 
with  partition  through  "spheres  of  influence." 
Japan,  therefore,  seems  now  to  be  lying  off  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia,  with  her  back  turned  on 
Russia  with  Siberian  breezes  and  Arctic  currents, 
her  face   turned  toward  America,    with  one  hand 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  15 

stretched  out  toward  the  Aleutian  Islands  and 
Alaska  and  the  other  toward  the  Philippines,  for 
the  hearty  grasp  of  friendship. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For  more  detailed  information  concerning  the  topics  treated 
in  this  chapter,  the  reader  is  referred  to  **  The  Story  of  Japan  " 
(Murray),  in  the  "  Story  of  the  Nations "  series ;  "  The  Gist 
of  Japan"  (Peery)  ;  and  "  Advance  Japan  "  (Morris). 

For  pleasant  descriptions  of  various  portions  of  Japan,  "  Jin- 
rikisha  Days  in  Japan"  (Miss  Scidmore);  "Lotos-Time  in 
Japan  "  (Finck)  ;  *'  Japan  and  her  People  "  (Miss  Hartshorne)  ; 
"Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan"  (Miss  Bird,  now  Mrs.  Bishop); 
"  Every  Day  Japan  "  (Lloyd) ;  and  *'  Japan  To-Day  "  (Scherer) 
are  recommended. 

The  most  complete  popular  work  on  the  country  is  the 
"Hand-Book  for  Japan"  (Chamberlain  and  Mason),  8th  edi- 
tion ;  and  the  most  thorough  scientific  treatment  is  to  be  found 
in  Rein's  "Japan." 

Students  of  seismology  should  consult  Prof.  John  Milne's 
works. 


CHAPTER  II 
INDUSTRIAL   JAPAN 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Agriculture ;  petty  farming ;  small  capital 
and  income ;  character  of  farmer ;  decrease  of  farmers ;  principal 
products ;  rice  ;  tea  ;  tobacco  ;  silk  ;  cotton ;  camphor ;  bamboo ; 
marine  products  and  industries.  —  Mining.  —  Engineering.  —  Ship- 
building. —  Miscellaneous  industries.  —  Mechanical  industries.  — 
Shopping  in  Japan.  —  Wages  and  incomes,  —  Guilds,  labor  unions, 
strikes,  etc.  —  Mr.  Katayama.  —  Socialism.  —  Bibliography. 


T^ 


HE  chief  occupation  of  the  Japanese  is  agri- 
■  culture,  in  which  the  great  mass  of  the 
-*-  people  are  employed.  On  account  of  the 
volcanic  nature  and  the  mountainous  condition  of 
the  country,  there  are  large  portions  not  tillable;^ 
and  for  the  same  reason,  perhaps,  the  soil  in  general 
is  not  naturally  very  fertile.  It  must  be,  and  can  be, 
made  so  by  artificial  means;  but  as  yet  not  half  of 
what  is  fairly  fertile  soil  is  under  cultivation.  Large 
portions  of  arable  land,  particularly  in  Yezo  and 
Formosa,  can  be  made  to  return  rich  harvests,  and 
are  gradually  being  brought  under  man's  dominion. 
But  it  can  be  readily  understood  that  if  for  any 
reason  the  crops  fail,  severe  suffering  will  ensue, 
and  perhaps  become  widespread.  The  prosperity  of 
the  country  depends  largely  upon  the  prosperity  of 
its  farmers. 

1  See  Appendix. 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN  17 

Farming,  like  almost  everything  in  that  land  of 
miniatures,  is  on  a  limited  scale,  as  each  man  has 
only  a  very  small  holding.  "There  is  no  farm 
in  Japan ;  there  are  only  gardens "  (Uchimura). 
Even  a  "petty  farmer"  of  our  Northwest  would 
ridicule  the  extremely  insignificant  farms  of  the 
Japanese,  who,  in  turn,  would  be  astounded  at  the 
prodigious  domains  of  a  Dalrymple.  A  careful  in- 
vestigator. Dr.  Karl  Rathgen,  has  summed  up  the 
situation  as  follows :  "  In  Japan  are  to  be  found  only 
small  holdings.  A  farm  of  five  cho  ^  (twelve  acres) 
is  considered  very  large.  As  a  rule  the  Japanese 
farmer  is  without  hired  labor  and  without  cattle. 
The  family  alone  cultivates  the  farm,  which,  how- 
ever, is  so  small  that  a  large  share  of  the  available 
labor  can  be  devoted  to  other  purposes  besides  farm- 
ing, such  as  the  production  of  silk,  indigo,  tobacco. 
The  average  holding  for  the  whole  of  Japan  (ex- 
cluding the  Hokkaido)  for  each  agricultural  family 
is  8.3  tan'^  (about  two  acres),  varying  from  a  maxi- 
mum of  17.6  tan  in  the  prefecture  of  Aomori  to  a 
minimum  of  5.3  tan  in  the  prefecture  of  Wakayama." 
"There  are  no  large  landed  proprietors  in  Japan." 

A  Japanese  farm  is  so  insignificant,  partly  because 
a  Japanese  farmer  has  only  a  very  small  capital,  and 
needs  only  a  slight  income  to  support  life.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  a  man  so  fortunate  as  to  own 
a  farm  of  five  cho  ^  obtains  therefrom  an  annual  in- 
come of   100  or   120  yen.^     And   yet   the  Japanese 

1  See  tables  of  measurement  and  coinage,  in  Appendix. 
2 


18    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

farmers  are  very  careful  and  thoroughly  understand 
their  business.  "In  spade-husbandry,"  says  Dr. 
Griffis,  "  they  have  little  to  learn  " ;  but  "  in  stock- 
raising,  fruit-growing,  and  the  raising  of  hardier 
grains  than  rice,  they  need  much  instruction.  "^ 

A  Japanese  farmer  is  hard-working,  industrious, 
stolid,  conservative,  and  yet,  by  reason  of  his  fatal- 
istic and  stoical  notions,  in  a  way  happy  and  con- 
tented. "Left  to  the  soil  to  till  it,  to  live  and  die 
upon  it,  the  Japanese  farmer  has  remained  the  same, 
.  .  .  with  his  horizon  bounded  by  his  rice-fields, 
his  water-courses,  or  the  timbered  hills,  his  intellect 
laid  away  for  safe-keeping  in  the  priest's  hands,  .  .  . 
caring  little  who  rules  him,  unless  he  is  taxed  be- 
yond the  power  of  flesh  and  blood  to  bear."  He  is, 
however,  more  than  ordinarily  interested  in  taxation, 
for  the  land-tax  of  three  and  one-third  per  cent  of  the 
assessed  value  of  the  land  amounts  to  about  half  the 
national  revenue,  and  is  no  inconsiderable  part  of 
the  state,  county,  town,  and  village  taxes.  It  would 
have  reverted  to  the  original  rate  of  two  and  one-half 
per  cent;  but  it  has  been  still  further  increased  on 
account  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War.^ 

*  See  "  The  Yankees  of  the  East "  (Curtis),  chap.  xiii. 

2  The  "  Shakai  Zasshi"  has  the  following  on  the  decrease  of 
farmers :  The  causes  of  the  phenomenon,  briefly  stated,  are  as 
below:  (1)  The  current  methods  of  farming  require  no  intelli- 
gence in  the  farmer.  He  works  very  much  like  an  animal  in  a 
purely  mechanical  fashion.  Hence  lads  with  minds  are  attracted 
to  trade  and  industry.  (2)  The  universality  of  education  has  in- 
creased the  number  of  intelligent  men  among  the  lower  classes,  and 
this  has  made  farmers  discontented  with  their  lot.  (3)  City  life  offers 
many  attractions  to  active-minded  persons ;  and  hence  in  Japan,  as 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN"  19 

The  principal  products  of  the  Japanese  farms  are 
rice,  barley,  wheat,  millet,  maize,  beans,  peasf  pota- 
toes (Irish  and  sweet),  turnips,  carrots,  melons,  egg- 
plants, buckwheat,  onions,  beets,  and  a  large  white 
bitter  radish  (daikori).  A  very  good  average  yield 
is  fifty  bushels  to  an  acre.  The  entire  annual  pro- 
duction of  rice  varies  each  year,  but  averages  about 
46,000,000  hohu ;'^  and  the  annual  exportation  of  rice 
runs  from  about  3,000,000  yen  to  over  10,000,000 
yen.  The  list  of  fruits  ^  and  nuts  grown  in  Japan 
includes  pears,  peaches,  oranges,  figs,  persimmons, 
grapes,  plums,  loquats,  apricots,  strawberries,  bananas, 
apples,  peanuts,  chestnuts,  etc. 

Among  other  important  Japanese  productions  must 
be  mentioned,  of  course,  tea,  tobacco,  and  mulberry 
trees.  Of  these  the  last  is,  perhaps,  indigenous; 
but  the  other  two  are  importations  in  their  origin. 
The  culture  of  tea  is  most  extensively  carried  on  in 
the  middle  and  southern  districts.  The  annual  pro- 
duction is  now  about  7,000,000  hiuan  ;^  the  annual 
export  trade  is  valued  at  over  10,000,000  yen.  The 
price  of  tea  runs  from  five  cents  to  six  dollars  per 
pound,  of  which  the  last  is  raised  at  Uji,  near  Kyoto. 
The  Japanese  are  a  tea-drinking  people;  they  use 
that  beverage  at  meals  and  between  meals,   at  all 

in  the  Western  world,  there  has  been  a  steady  flow  of  country 
people  towards  the  towns.  The  statistics  published  on  this  matter 
show,  that,  whereas  in  1889  the  proportion  of  townspeople  to  the 
total  number  of  inhabitants  was  15  in  every  100  persons,  in  1898  it 
has  risen  to  18.  This  accounts  for  the  scarcity  of  farm  labor,  which 
has  constantly  been  complained  of  in  recent  years.  —  Japan  Mail. 

1  See  tables  in  Appendix.  2  gg^  Appendix. 

^  See  tables  of  weights  and  measures  in  Appendix. 


20    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

times  and  in  all  places.  It  is  true  that  they  drink  it 
from  a  very  small  cup,  which  holds  about  two  table- 
spoonfuls,  but  tliey  drink,  as  we  are  told  to  pray, 
"without  ceasing."  Hot  water  is  kept  ever  ready  for 
making  tea,  which  is  sipped  every  few  minutes,  and  is 
always  served,  with  cake  or  confectionery,  to  visitors.^ 

Tobacco  was  introduced  into  Japan  by  the  Portu- 
guese, but  its  use  was  at  first  strictly  prohibited. 
The  practice  of  smoking,  however,  rapidly  spread 
until  it  became  well-nigh  a  universal  custom,  not 
even  restricted  to  the  male  sex.  The  Lilliputian 
pipe  would  seem  to  indicate  that  only  a  limited 
amount  of  the  weed  is  used;  but  smoking,  like 
tea-drinking,  is  practised  "early  and  often."  The 
Japanese  tobacco  is  said  to  be  "remarkable  for  its 
mildness  and  dryness." 

The  silk  industry  is  the  most  important  in  rela- 
tion to  Japan's  foreign  trade,  and  is  on  the  increase. 
Silk  is  sent  away  to  American  and  European  markets 
chiefly  in  its  raw  state,  but  is  also  manufactured  into 
handkerchiefs,  etc.  The  exports  of  silk  for  the  year 
1910  amounted  to  about  190,000,000,  or  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  export  trade.  It  would,  of  course, 
be  beyond  the  limits  of  this  chapter  to  enter  into  the 
description  of  the  details  of  sericulture;  it  may  be 
sufficient  here  to  state  that  only  the  stolid  patience 
of  Orientals  can  well  endure  the  slow,  tedious,  and 
painstaking  process  of  feeding  the  silkworms.^ 

1  Scidmore's  "Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan,"  chap,  xxxv.,  and 
Gribble's  paper  in  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xii. 
pp.  1-33. 

*  Scidmore's  "  Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan/'  chaps.  zxtL,  xxvii. 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN  21 

Cotton-spinning  is  a  comparatively  new  industry 
in  Japan,  but  is  growing  rapidly.  Cotton  is,  of 
course,  the  principal  material  for  the  clothing  of  the 
common  people,  who  cannot  afford  silk  robes.  But 
Japan,  though  raising  a  great  deal  of  cotton,  cannot 
supply  the  demand,  and  imports  large  quantities 
from  India  and  America.  It  is  only  within  a  short 
time  that  cotton-spinning  by  machinery  has  become 
a  Japanese  industry ;  formerly  all  the  yam  was  spun 
by  hand;  but  in  1907  there  were  136  cotton-mills  in 
Japan.  Some  are  very  small  concerns ;  but  in  Osaka, 
Nagoya,  and  Tokyo  there  are  comparatively  large  and 
flourishing  mills.  Ordinary  workmen  receive  from 
12  to  20  sen  a  day;  skilled  laborers  make  from  30  to 
40  sen;  girls  earn  from  10  to  20  sen^  and  children 
only  a  few  sen  per  day;  but  the  stockholders  receive 
dividends  of  from  10  to  20  per  cent  per  annum. 

Since  Japan  acquired  Formosa  from  China,  she  has 
had  added  to  her  resources  another  very  important 
and  valuable  product,  in  which  she  possesses  prac- 
tically a  monopoly  of  the  world's  market  and  a  sup- 
ply supposed  to  be  sufficient  for  the  demands  of  the 
whole  world  for  this  entire  century.  It  has  been 
estimated,  for  instance,  that  the  area  of  interior  dis- 
tricts in  which^the  camphor  tree  is  found  will  reach 
over  l,500^!miles.  The  camphor  business  of  Japan 
in  Formosa  is  in  the  hands  of  a  British  firm,  to 
whom,  as  highest  bidder,  the  government  let  out 
its  monopoly  for  a  fixed  term  of  years. ^ 

^  See  Davidson's  "  Island  of  Formosa." 


22    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Perhaps  the  most  generally  useful  product  of  Japan 
is  the  bamboo,  1  which  "linds  a  use  in  eveiy  size,  at 
all  ages,  and  for  manifold  purposes,"  or,  as  Huish 
expresses  it,  "is  used  for  everything."  Rein  and 
Chamberlain  each  takes  up  a  page  or  more  for  an 
incomplete  list  of  articles  made  from  bamboo;  so 
that  Piggott  is  surely  right  when  he  states  that  it  is 
"an  easier  task  to  say  what  is  not  made  of  bamboo." 

Inasmuch  as  Japan  is  an  insular  country,  with  a 
long  line  of  sea-coast,  it  is  natural  that  fishing  should 
be  one  of  the  principal  occupations  of  the  people,  and 
that  fish,  seaweed,  and  other  marine  products  should 
be  common  diet.  From  ancient  times  down  to  the 
opening  of  Japan,  the  fishing  industry  was  a  simple 
occupation,  somewhat  limited  in  its  scope ;  but  since 
the  Japanese  have  learned  from  other  nations  to  what 
extent  marine  industries  are  capable  of  development, 
fishing  has  become  the  source  of  many  and  varied 
lines  of  business.  The  canning  industry,  for  in- 
stance, is  of  quite  recent  origin,  but  is  growing 
rapidly.  Whaling  and  sealing  are  very  profitable 
occupations.  Smelt-fishing  by  torchlight  by  means 
of  tame  cormorants  was  largely  employed  in  olden 
times,  and  is  kept  up  somewhat  even  to  the  present 
day.  The  occupation  of  a  fisherman,  though  arduous 
and  dangerous,  is  not  entirely  prosaic,  and,  in  Japan, 
contributes  to  art.     The  return  home  of  the  fishing- 

1  See  Transactions  Japan  Society,  London,  vol.  i.,  for  an  interest- 
ing paper  by  Charles  Holme,  and  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan,  vol.  xxvii.,  for  an  elaborate  and  finely  illustrated  paper  by 
Sir  Ernest  Satow,  on  "  Bamboo." 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN  23 

smacks  in  the  afternoon  is  an  interesting  sight;  and 
the  aspect  of  the  sea,  dotted  with  white  sails,  appeals 
so  strongly  to  the  aesthetic  sense  of  the  Japanese 
that  it  is  included  among  the  "eight  views"  of  any 
locality. 

Mining  is  also  a  flourishing  industry  in  Japan,  as 
the  country  is  quite  rich  in  mineral  resources.  Coal 
is  so  extensively  found  that  it  constitutes  an  item  of 
export.  Copper,  antimony,  sulphur,  and  silver  are 
found  in  large  quantities;  gold,  tin,  iron,  lead,  salt, 
etc.,  in  smaller  quantities.  Oil,  too,  has  sprung  up 
into  an  important  product.^ 

Engineering,  perhaps,  deserves  a  paragraph  by 
itself.  This  department  in  the  Imperial  University 
is  flourishing,  and  sends  forth  annually  a  large 
number  of  good  engineers.  In  civil  engineering 
the  Japanese  have  become  so  skilful  that  they  have 
little  need  now  of  foreign  experts  except  in  the 
matter  of  general  supervision. 

It  is  worthy  of  special  notice  that  the  Japanese 
have  become  quite  skilful  in  ship-building,  so  that 
they  now  construct  vessels  of  various  kinds,  not  only 
for  themselves  but  for  other  nations.  The  Mitsu 
Bishi  Company,  Nagasaki,  has  constructed  for  the 
Oriental  Steamship  Company  three  fine  passenger 
steamers  of  13,000  tons  each.  At  the  Uraga  Dock- 
yard large  American  men-of-war  have  been  satisfac- 
torily repaired;  and  on  October  15,  1902,  a  small 
United  States    gunboat  was    launched,  —  '''•the  first 

1  See  Appendix. 


24    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

instance  in  which  Japan  has  _got  an_  order  of  ship 
building  from  a  Western  country.''^  ^ 

Among  the  minor  miscellaneous  industries  which 
can  only  be  mentioned  are  sugar-raising,  paper- 
making  (there  are  a  number  of  mills  which  are 
paying  well),  dyeing,  glass-blowing,  lumber,  horse- 
breeding,  poultry,  pisciculture,  ice,  brick,  fan,  match, 
button,  handkerchief,  pottery,  lacquer,  weaving,  em- 
broidery, sake  and  beer  brewing,  soy,  etc.  The  ex- 
tent and  variety  of  the  industries  of  Modern  Japan 
are  also  clearly  evidenced  in  a  short  article  about 
"  The  Osaka  Exhibition  "  of  1903  in  the  Appendix. 

In  what  we  style  "  the  mechanical  arts  "  the  Jap- 
anese excel,  and  have  a  world-wide  reputation.  With 
their  innate  aesthetic  instincts  they  make  the  most 
commonplace  beautiful.  It  is  a  trite  saying  that  a 
globe-trotter,  picking  up  in  a  native  shop  a  very 
pretty  little  article,  and  admiring  it  for  its  simplicity 
and  exquisite  taste,  is  likely  to  find  it  an  ordinary 
household  utensil.  Japanese  lacquer  work  is  dis- 
tinctive and  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  strength ; 
lacquered  utensils,  such  as  bowls,  trays,  etc.,  are 
not  damaged  by  boiling  soups,  hot  water,  or  even 
cigar  ashes.  In  porcelain  and  pottery,  the  Japanese 
are  celebrated  for  the  artistic  skill  displayed  in 
manufacture  and  ornamentation.  "The  bronze  and 
inlaid  metal  work  of  Japan  is  highly  esteemed.'* 
Japanese  swords,  too,  are  remarkable  weapons  with 
"astonishing  cleaving  power."     To  summarize   this 

^  Japan  Times.    See  also  Appendix. 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN"  25 

paragraph,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Japanese  have 
turned  what  we  call  mechanical  industries  into  fine 
arts,  which  display  a  magnificent  triumph  of  sestheti- 
cism  even  in  little  things.^ 

This  chapter  would  be  incomplete  without  a  para- 
graph concerning  Japanese  shops,  or  retail  stores, 
which  are  among  the  first  curiosities  to  attract  and 
rivet  a  foreigner's  attention.  The  building  is,  per- 
haps, a  small,  low,  frame  structure,  crowded  among 
its  fellows  on  a  narrow  lane.  The  floor  is  raised  a 
foot  or  so  above  the  ground,  and  is  covered,  as  usual, 
with  thick  matting.  Spread  out  on  the  floor  or  on 
wooden  tiers  or  on  shelves  are  the  goods  for  sale. 
The  shopkeeper  sits  on  his  feet  on  the  floor,  and 
calmly  smokes  his  pipelet,  or  fans  himself,  or  in 
winter  warms  his  hands  over  the  hihachi  (fire-bowl). 
He  greets  you  with  a  profound  bow  and  most  re- 
spectful words  of  welcome,  but  makes  no  attempt  to 
effect  a  sale,  or  even  to  show  an  article  unless  you  ask 
to  see  it.  He  is  imperturbably  indifferent  whether 
or  not  you  make  a  purchase;  either  way,  it  is  all 
right.  He  will  politely  display  anything  you  want 
to  see ;  and,  even  if,  after  making  him  much  trouble, 
you  buy  nothing  or  only  an  insignificant  and  cheap 
article,  he  sends  you  away  with  as  profound  a  bow 
and  as  polite  expressions  as  if  you  had  bought  out 
the  shop.  Whether  you  buy  little  or  much  or  even 
nothing,  you  are  always  dismissed  with  *"' Arigato 
gozaimasu'^  and  ^^ Mata  irasshai,''  which  are  very  re- 

^  See  also  chapter  on  "  -Esthetic  Japan." 


26    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

spectful  phrases  for  "  Thank  you  "  and  "  Come  again." 
Having  dropped  into  "a  veritable  shoppers'  para- 
dise," you  will  quickly  "find  yourself  the  prey  of  an 
acute  case  of  shopping  fever  before  you  know  it ! " 
It  is,  indeed,  true,  to  quote  further  from  this  same 
writer,  that  "  to  stroll  down  the  Broadway  [known  as 
the  Ginza]  of  Tokio  of  an  evening  is  a  liberal  educa- 
tion in  e very-day  art."  ^ 

From  what  has  already  been  written,  it  is  easily 
noticeable  that  wages  and  incomes,  like  so  many 
things  in  petite  Japan,  are  insignificant.  It  may  be 
added  that  ordinary  mechanics  earn  on  an  average 
over  50  sen  a  day,  and  the  most  skilful  seldom  get 
more  than  double  that  amount ;  that  carpenters  earn 
from  70  to  100  sen  a  day ;  that  street-car  drivers  and 
conductors  receive  12  or  15  yen  per  month,  and  other 
workmen  of  the  common  people  about  the  same. 
Even  an  official  who  receives  1,000  yen  per  year  is 
considered  to  have  a  snug  income.  It  will  be  in- 
ferred from  this  that  the  cost  of  living  is  proportion- 
ately cheaper,  whether  for  provisions  or  for  shelter 
or  for  clothes,  and  that  the  wants,  the  absolute  ne- 
cessities, of  the  people  are  few  and  simple.  Literally 
true  it  is,  that  a  Japanese  man  "  wants  but  little  here 
below,  nor  wants  that  little  long."  With  rice,  bar- 
ley, sweet  potatoes,  other  vegetables,  fish,  eggs,  tea, 
and  even  sweetmeats  in  abundance  and  very  cheap, 
a  Japanese  can  subsist  on  little  and  be  contented  and 
happy  with  enough,  or  even  less   than  that.     But, 

1  Loweirt  "  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  pp.  114-117. 


INDUSTRIAL  JAPAN  27 

unfortunately,  the  new  civilization  of  the  West  has 
carried  into  Japan  the  itch  for  gold  and  the  desire  for 
more  numerous  and  more  expensive  luxuries,  and  has 
increased  the  cost  of  living  without  increasing  pro- 
portionately the  amount  of  income  or  wages.  ^ 

Industrial  Japan  has  already  become  more  or  less 
modified  by  features  of  Occidental  industrialism, 
such  as  guilds,  trade  unions,  strikes,  co-operative 
stores.  It  is  true  that  feudal  Japan  also  had  guilds, 
which  are,  however,  now  run  rather  on  modern  lines. 
One  of  the  oldest,  strongest,  and  most  compact  is 
that  of  the  dock  coolies,  who  without  many  written 
rules  are  yet  so  well  organized  that  they  have 
almost  an  absolute  monopoly,  with  frequent  strikes, 
which  are  always  successful.  Others  of  the  guilds 
are  those  of  the  sawyers,  the  plasterers,  the  stone- 
masons, the  bricklayers,  the  carpenters,  the  barbers, 
the  coolies  (who  can  travel  all  over  the  empire  with- 
out a  penny  and  live  on  their  fellows),  the  wrestlers, 
the  actors,  the  gamblers,  the  pickpockets,  etc.  The 
beggars'  guild  is  now  defunct.  The  labor  unions 
of  modern  days  include  the  iron-workers,  the  ship- 
carpenters,  the  railway  engineers,  the  railway  work- 
men, the  printers,  and  the  European-style  cooks. 
The  last-mentioned  is  one  in  which  foreigners  resi- 
dent in  Japan  necessarily  take  a  practical  interest  I 
The  only  unions  which  have  become  absolute  masters 
of  the  situation  are  those  of  the  dock  coolies,  the 
railway  laborers,  and  the  railway  engineers.  As  for 
1  The  Yankees  of  the  East  (Curtis),  chap,  xii.    Also  see  Appendix. 


28    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

co-operative   stores,  there   are   a   dozen  or  more  in 
Tokyo,  Yokohama,  and  Northern  Japan. 

The  perfect  organization  of  these  modem  unions 
is  due  largely  to  the  efforts  of  a  young  man  named 
Sen  Katayama,  who  is  the  champion  of  the  rights 
of  the  laboring  man  in  Japan.  He  spent  ten  years 
in  America  and  made  a  special  study  of  social  prob- 
lems. He  is  the  head  of  Kingsley  Hall,  a  social 
settlement  of  varied  activity  in  the  heart  of  Tokyo, 
and  editor  of  the  "Labor  World,"  the  organ  of  the 
working  classes.  That  the  changes  rapidly  taking 
place  in  the  industrial  life  of  Japan  will  raise  up 
serious  problems,  there  is  no  doubt ;  what  phases  they 
will  assume  cannot  be  foreseen.  But  "socialistic" 
ideas  are  carefully  repressed  in  modern  Japan. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"  Japan  and  its  Trade "  and  "  Advance  Japan  "  (Morris) ; 
"  The  Yankees  of  the  East "  (Curtis) ;  "  Japan  in  Transition  " 
(Ransome),  chap,  x.;  "  The  Awakening  of  the  East  "  (Leroy- 
Beaulieu),  chaps,  iv.  and  v.;  "Dai  Nippon"  (Dyer),  chaps, 
viii.  and  xi. ;  and  especially  Rein's  "  Industries  of  Japan,"  in 
which  the  subject  is  treated  in  great  detail  with  German  thor- 
oughness. But  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  progress  along  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  lines,  one  really  needs  current  English 
newspapers  and  magazines,  such  as  are  mentioned  in  the  chap- 
ter on  ''Language  and  Literature."  The  reports  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  United  States  consular  officials  are  also  very  useful  in  this 
respect. 

"The  Japan  Year  Book,"  issued  annually,  is  a  veritable 
cyclopedia  of  important  facts  and  figures. 


CHAPTER  III 
TRAVEL,   TRANSPORTATION,  COMMERCE 

Outline  op  Topics  :  Trarelling  in  Old  Japan ;  vehicles  of  Old 
and  New  Japan ;  jinrikisha ;  railway  travel ;  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone; street-car,  bicycle,  and  automobile;  steamships.  —  Postal 
system.  —  Oil,  gas,  and  electric  light.  —  Foreign  commerce ;  variety 
of  imports.  —  Mixed  corporations.  —  Stock  and  other  exchanges. — 
Banking  system ;  coinage  ;  monetary  standard.  —  Baron  Shibusawa 
on  business  ability  of  Japanese,  prospects  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial Japan,  and  financial  situation.  —  Bibliography. 

ONE  of  the  most  common  and  most  important 
indications  of  a  great  change  in  the  life  and 
civilization  of  Japan  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
improved  modes  of  travel  and  transportation.  The 
ancient  method,  though  in  some  sections  pack-horses 
and  oxen  were  used,  was  essentially  pedestrian.  The 
common  people  travelled  on  foot,  and  carried  or 
dragged  over  the  road  their  own  baggage  or  freight. 
Couriers,  carrying  the  most  important  despatches, 
relied  upon  fleetness  of  foot.  The  higher  classes  and 
wealthy  people,  even  though  not  themselves  making 
any  exertions  in  their  own  behalf,  were  carried  about 
in  vehicles  by  coolies,  who,  with  their  human  burdens, 
tramped  from  place  to  place.  On  water,  too,  travel 
and  transportation  depended  mostly  upon  human  mus- 
cular exertion,  as  all  boats,  small  or  large,  had  to  be 
propelled  by  oars  or  poles,  except  when  favored  with  a 


30    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

breeze  to  swell  the  sails  and  allow  the  boatmen  a  respite 
from  their  toil.  But  all  this  hard  labor  developed,  of 
course,  a  strength  of  Hmb  and  a  power  of  endui-ance 
that  even  in  recent  years  have  enabled  the  Japanese 
soldiers  to  march  and  fight  in  either  the  piercing  cold 
and  deep  snow  of  Manchuria  or  the  bUstering  heat 
of  Formosa.  A  life  of  constant  outdoor  exposure  to 
wind,  rain,  cold,  or  heat  has  toughened  and  browned 
the  skin,  and  made  an  altogether  hardy  race  out  of  the 
common  people ;  while  the  lack  of  this  regular  exercise 
and  calisthenic  training  has  left  its  mark  in  the  com- 
paratively weak  constitutions  of  those  who  travelled, 
not  on  their  own  feet,  but  on  the  shoulders  of  others. 

The  common  vehicles  of  the  olden  days  were 
ordinary  carts  for  freight  and  norimono  and  kago  for 
passengers.  The  norimono  is  a  good-sized  sedan-chair 
or  palanquin,  in  which  the  rider  can  sit  in  a  fairly 
comfortable  position.  The  kago  is  a  sort  of  basket  in 
which  the  traveller  takes  a  half-sitting,  half-reclining 
posture,  not  altogether  comfortable  —  at  least  for  tall 
foreigners.  At  present  the  norimono  is  seldom  if 
ever  employed  except  for  corpses  or  invalids,  but 
the  kago  is  still  used  in  mountainous  regions,  where 
nothing  else  is  available.  It  must  be  understood,  of 
course,  that  the  nobles  and  their  retainers  often 
rode  on  horseback ;  but  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
walked  and  the  few  rode  in  kago  or  norimono. 

Now,  however,  modes  of  travel  have  changed 
greatly,  and  are  changing  year  by  year.  There  are 
still  many  pedestrians ;  the  kago  is  yet  to  be  seen ; 


TRAVEL,  TRANSPORTATIOlSr,   COMMERCE     31 

boats  are  propelled  by  stern-end  oar  or  laboriously 
pushed  along  with  poles ;  and  pack-horses  and  oxen 
—  even  in  the  streets  of  Toky5  —  are  in  frequent  use. 
But  there  are  many  other  means  of  communication 
and  transportation.  There  have  come  into  use  the 
horse-car,  the  stage,  the  jinrikisha^  the  railroad,  with 
the  telegraph  and  the  telephone;  the  modern  row- 
boat,  the  steamboat ;  the  bicycle,  the  automobile,  and 
the  electric  railway,  with  the  electric  light  to  show 
the  road  by  night.  An  excellent  postal  system  and 
various  other  modern  contrivances  for  facilitating  the 
means  of  communication  have  been  adopted. 

The  most  common  mode  of  conveyance  at  present,  in 
all  possible  localities,  is  the  jin-riki-sha  (man-power- 
carriage),  or  "Pull-mag^ cj^r,"  as  it  has  been  wittily 
called.  This  is  a  two-wheeled  "  small  gig,"  or  large 
baby-carriage,  pulled  by  one  or  more  men.  A  ride  in 
a  jinrikisha^  after  one  has  become  accustomed  to 
human  labor  in  that  capacity,  is  really  comfortable 
and  delightful.  The  coolies  who  pull  these  vehicles 
develop  swiftness  and  endurance,  but  are  compara- 
tively short-lived.  There  is  also  a  two-wheeled 
freight  cart  manipulated  in  the  same  fashion.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  in  the  Empire  there  are 
almost  1,350,000  hand-carts,  about  185,000  jinriki- 
shas,  about  28,000  ox-carts,  more  than  66,000  other 
freight  carts,  and  almost  100,000  carriages  and 
wagons.  The  business  of  transportation  thus  fur- 
nishes occupation  to  thousands  of  people,  but  gives 
to  each  engaged  therein  only  a  scanty  remuneration, 


32    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

which  is  often  insufficient  for  the  support  of  life,  after 
the  tax  has  been  paid.  The  fee  for  a  jinrikisha  ride 
averages  about  12  or  15  sen  pern  (2|  miles), or  varies 
from  20  to  30  sen  per  hour.  If  a  coolie  makes  50  sen 
in  one  day,  he  is  fortunate,  and  is  lucky  to  average  25 
or  30  sen  per  day ;  for  some  days  he  may  be  wearily 
waiting  and  watching  from  dawn  to  the  dead  of  night 
without  receiving  scarcely  a  copper.  Hard,  indeed, 
is  their  lot;  and  their  death  rate  is  rather  high.^ 

But  even  the  jinrikisha  will  eventually  be  sup- 
planted for  long  journeys  wherever  a  railroad  goes. 
There  are  now  in  Japan  over  6,000  miles  of  railway, 
and  in  Korea  and  South  Manchuria  there  are  641 
and  706  miles  more.  There  is  one  continuous  line  of 
railroad  from  Aomori  in  the  extreme  north  to  Shim- 
onoseki  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  main  island,  and 
then,  after  crossing  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki,  there 
is  another  unbroken  line  from  Moji  to  Nagasaki  and 
Kagoshima  or  Kumamoto.  In  the  island  of  Yezo 
(Hokkaido)  is  a  short  line  built  by  American  engi- 
neers after  American  models ;  but  all  other  i-ailroads  in 

1  *"  Unlike  ordinary  laborers  jinrikisha  men  have  always  to 
work  in  the  open  air,  often  in  defiance  of  the  elements,  and  irre- 
spective of  day  or  night.  Sometimes  they  are  covered  from  head 
to  foot  with  dust  and  at  other  times  drenched  to  the  skin  with 
water.  Then  again  they  experience  a  constant  change  in  their 
bodily  temperature,  at  one  time  perspiring  from  their  arduous 
exertions,  and  at  another  shivering  with  cold.  No  one  can  doubt 
that  such  quick  change  in  bodily  temperature  will  sooner  or  later 
tell  on  the  health  of  those  unfortunate  victims.  At  every  street 
corner  they  are  to  be  found  on  the  eager  look-out  for  customers, 
but  exhaustion  soon  asserts  its  claim  over  them,  as  they  inrariably 
doze  whenever  and  wherever  they  have  the  chance." 


TRAVEL,  TRANSPORTATION,  COMMERCE     33 

Japan  were  built  and  are  operated  according  to  the 
British  methods.  The  rate  of  fare  is  1  sen  per  mile  for 
third  class,  2  sen  for  second  class,  and  3  sen  for  first 
class,  and  the  rate  of  speed  rarely  exceeds  20  or  25  miles 
per  hour ;  but  fortunately  the  people  are  not  in  such 
a  hurry  as  Americans.  Recently,  however,  express 
trains,  running  at  the  rate  of  30  or  more  miles  per 
hour,  have  been  started  on  several  of  the  roads,  espe- 
cially between  large  and  important  places.  Dining- 
cars  and  sleeping-cars,  too,  may  be  found  on  some  of 
the  lines ;  and  the  American  check  system  is  used  for 
baggage.  The  government  owns  most  of  the  rail- 
ways ;  in  1906,  the  Twenty-second  Diet  adopted  a  bill 
for  buying  up  the  seventeen  largest  private  lines. 
This  may  have  been  desirable  from  a  strategic  point  of 
view;  but  from  the  business  standpoint  it  was  not  ad- 
visable, for  the  government  lines  are  not  so  well  man- 
aged. The  best  line  in  the  country  was  a  private  one,  the 
Sanyo  Railway  Company,  operating  west  from  Kobe.^ 
Railroads  have  been  naturally  accompanied,  and 
often  preceded,  by  telegraph  lines,  which  now  keep 
the  various  parts  of  the  empire  in  close  communica- 
tion with  Tokyo  and  with  each  other.  During  1910 
the  telegrams  numbered  over  28,000,000,  and  are 
increasing  rapidly  in  number  every  year.  The 
Japanese  syllabary  has  lent  itself  easily  to  a  code 
like  the  Morse  Code.^     Telephones,  too,  have  been 

1  See  Appendix,  for  important  railway  statistics. 

2  Japan  is  also  in  cable  communication  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  via  Hongkong,  or  Vladivostock,  or  Manila,  or  Honolulu ;  and 
press  rates  are  available. 


34    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

introduced  and  are  growing  in  favor  so  rapidly  that 
the  government  cannot  keep  up  with  the  petitions  for 
installation.  According  to  the  latest  reports,  there 
were  over  100,000  telephones  in  all  Japan.  There 
are  many  public  slot  telephones,  which  can  be  used 
for  a  few  minutes  for  5  sen. 

Horse-cars  are  largely  used  in  cities,  but  are  being 
gradually  supplanted  by  electric  cars.  The  bus  in 
the  city  and  the  stage  in  the  country  are  in  com- 
mon use,  but  cannot  be  recommended  for  comfort. 
Bicycles  are  very  popular,  and  are  cheaply  manufac- 
tured in  Japan;  even  Japanese  women  have  begun  to 
ride,  while  young  men  are  very  skilful  as  trick  riders 
and  rapid  as  *' scorchers."  Automobiles  also  are 
coming  into  a  limited  use. 

In  a  country  where  formerly  no  ships  large  enough 
to  make  long  voyages  were  allowed  to  be  made,  steam- 
ship companies  are  now  flourishing.  The  Osaka 
Shosen  Kwaisha  (Osaka  Merchant  Marine  Com- 
pany) is  a  very  large  and  prosperous  corporation, 
whose  business  is  chiefly  coasting  trade,  but  which 
also  runs  to  Formosa,  the  Ryukyu  Islands,  the  Bonin 
Islands,  Korea,  China,  and  America.  The  largest 
steamship  company  in  Japan,  and  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world,  is  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kwaisha  (Japan 
Mail  Steamship  Company).  It  has  a  fleet  of  88 
vessels  with  300,000  tons ;  and  maintains  not  only 
a  frequent  coasting  service,  but  also  several  for- 
eign lines,  to  Siberia,  Korea,  China,  India,  Australia, 
Europe,  and  America.     This  is  the  line  which  runs 


TRAVEL,  TRAlSrSPORTATIOlSr,  COMMERCE     35 

fortnightly  from  Seattle  to  Hongkong  with  excel- 
lent passenger  accommodations.  The  Toyo  Kisen 
Kwaisha  (Oriental  Steamship  Company)  is  a  Jap- 
anese organization  with  three  fine  vessels  running 
about  once  a  month  from  San  Francisco  to  Hawaii, 
Japan,  China,  and  Manila.  The  word  Maru  ^  in  such 
combinations  as  "  America  Maru  "  or  "  Kaga  Maru  "  is 
a  special  suffix  always  attached  to  the  name  of  a  ship. 
In  Old  Japan  there  was  no  official  postal  system, 
and  letters  were  despatched  by  private  messengers 
and  relays  of  couriers.  When  Japan  was  opened  to 
the  world,  some  of  the  foreign  nations  represented 
there  maintained  special  post-offices  of  their  own,  but 
these  were  gradually  abandoned.  It  was  in  1872  that 
the  modern  postal  system  of  Japan  was  organized  on 
American  models  ;  and  it  was  only  five  years  later*^ 
when  Japan  was  admitted  to  the  International  Postal 
Union.  The  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  this  event  was 
celebrated  with  great  eclat  in  Tokyo  in  1902.  The 
Japanese  postal  system  has  been  gradually  improved 
during  its  quarter-century  of  existence,  so  that  in  some 
respects  it  excels  its  model,  the  United  States  postal 
system,  and  is  really  one  of  the  most  efficient  in  the 
world.  It  includes  registration,  money  orders,  parcel 
post,  reply  postal  cards,  postal  savings,^  and  universal 
free  delivery.  Letter  postage  is  3  sen  within  the 
empire  and  10  sen  to  all  countries  of  the  International 
Postal  Union;  postal  cards  are  IJ  and  4  sen  respec- 

^  It  should  be  pronounced  Mah-roo,  not  M|l-rcfo'. 
^  See  Appendix. 


36    A  HAKDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

tively.  We  also  beg  leave  to  remind  Americans  that 
letter  postage  to  Japan  is  not  2  cents,  but  5  cents,  per 
ounce. 

Oil  is  most  extensively  used  for  lighting  purposes ; 
but  gas  and  electricity  are  also  employed,  and  bring 
good  dividends  to  companies  furnishing  such  illumina- 
tion. A  very  large  amount  of  oil  has  been  annually 
imported  from  the  United  States  and  Russia ;  but  as 
rich  fields  have  been  found  in  Northern  Japan,^ 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  is  also  interested  in  a 
Japanese  corporation,  the  International  Oil  Company, 
organized  to  work  Japanese  fields.  Foreign  capital 
has  also  been  invested  in  the  Osaka  Gas  Company, 
and  is  sought  by  the  Tokyo  Gras  Company,  as  well  as 
by  several  electric  and  steam  railway  companies.  The 
first  buildings  erected  for  the  Imperial  Diet  were 
supplied  with  electric  lights,  but  caught  fire  in  some 
way,  and  were  totally  destroyed.  This  calamity  was 
laid  at  the  door  of  a  flaw  in  the  electric  lighting 
apparatus,  and  so  frightened  the  Emperor  that  he 
decided  not  to  use  the  electric  lights  in  the  palace ; 
but  if  my  memory  serves  me  rightly,  after  one  or 
two  nights  of  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory  lighting, 
he  resorted  once  more  to  electricity. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Japan  had  increased  from 
$13,123,272  in  1868  to  $265,017,161  in  1902,— 
twenty-fold  in  a  third  of  a  century .^  Of  recent  years 
the  imports  have  been  larger  than  the  exports;  in 

^  See  Appendix. 

2  See  table  in  Appendix.  In  1912  the  exports  footed  up  f262,- 
000,000,  and  the  imports  ^9,000,000. 


TRAVEL,  TRANSPORTATION,   COMMERCE        37 

1898  they  were  more  than  $55,000,000  in  excess ;  in 
1900,  almost  141,500,000  in  excess;  but  in  1901  the 
difference  was  only  about  11,750,000.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  are  silk  (either  raw,  or  partly  or 
wholly  manufactured),  cotton  yarn  and  goods,  matches, 
coal,  high-grade  rice,  copper,  camphor,  tea,  matting, 
straw  braid,  and  porcelain.  The  principal  imports 
are  raw  cotton,  shirting  and  printed  cotton,  mousse- 
line,  wool,  cotton  velvet,  satin,  cheap  rice,  flour, 
sugar,  petroleum,  oil  cake,  peas  and  beans,  machinery, 
iron  and  steel  (including  nails  and  rails),  steamers, 
locomotives,  and  railway  carriages.  The  exports  are 
sent  chiefly  to  the  United  States,  Great  Britain  and 
colonies  (especially  Hongkong),  China,  and  France ; 
while  the  imports  come  mostly  from  Great  Britain 
and  colonies  (especially  England,  India,  and  Hong- 
kong), the  United  States,  Germany,  France  and  col- 
onies, and  China. 

The  variety  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
imports  of  Japan  may  be  faintly  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing partial  list  of  supplies  taken  by  an  American 
family  from  Tokyo  to  the  summer  resort  of  Hakone  : 
soap  from  England  and  America,  cocoa  from  England, 
butter  from  California,  cornstarch  from  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
Swiss  milk,  Holland  candles,  pickles  from  England, 
Scotch  oatmeal,  American  rolled  oats  and  cracked 
wheat,  flour  from  Spokane  Falls,  Washington,  canned 
goods  from  San  Francisco,  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  and 
Omaha,  and  evaporated  cream  from  Illinois. 

The  first  mixed  corporation,  composed  of  Japanese 


38    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  foreigners,  to  be  licensed  under  the  new  Commercial 
Codes  after  the  new  treaties  went  into  effect  in  1899, 
was  the  Nippon  Electric  Company,  in  which  a  large 
electric  company  of  Chicago  is  specially  interested. 

Japan  has  several  stock  exchanges  and  chambers 
of  commerce  in  various  localities,  and  these  are  all 
under  the  strictest  supervision  and  close  restrictions. 

It  was  in  1872  that  National  Bank  Regulations  were 
first  issued,  and  a  few  banks  were  established ;  but  in 
1876  it  was  found  necessary  to  make  radical  amend- 
ments in  those  regulations  in  the  way  of  affording 
greater  facilities  for  the  organization  of  banks.  The 
result  was  that  by  1879  there  were  153  national  banks 
in  the  country ;  and  in  1886  the  further  organization 
of  national  banks  was  stopped.  In  the  mean  time  the 
Yokohama  Specie  Bank  had  been  organized  (in  1880) 
for  the  support  of  the  foreign  trade ;  and  (in  1882) 
the  Bank  of  Japan  (Nippon  Ginko)  had  been  organ- 
ized to  "  secure  proper  regulations  of  the  currency." 
In  1897  the  Industrial  Bank,  and  later  provincial 
agricultural-industrial  banks  were  organized  to  give 
special  banking  facilities  to  local  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial circles.  The  Bank  of  Formosa,  the  Colonial 
Bank  of  Hokkaido,  and  a  Credit  Mobilier  complete  the 
list  of  official  institutions.  By  1899  all  the  national 
banks  had  either  been  changed  into  private  banks  or 
had  gone  out  of  existence.  Private  banks  number 
almost  1,700,  of  which  the  Mitsui,  the  Mitsubishi,  the 
Hundredth,  the  Sumitomo,  the  Fifteenth  (Nobles'), 
the  First,  and  the  Yasuda  are  the  strongest.    Savings- 


lArTsr/'i'T^r'- 


TRAVEL,   TRANSPORTATIOlSr,   COMMERCE        39 

banks  are  also  quite  numerous  (652),  and  are  helping 
to  develop  habits  of  thrift  and  economy  among  the 
common  people.^ 

The  first  Japanese  mint  was  established  at  Osaka 
in  1871,  and  has  been  actively  at  work  ever  since ; 
and  there  is  an  institution  in  Tokyo  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper  money.  The  coins  now  chiefly  used  the 
copper,  nickel,  silver,  and  gold;  but  in  the  country 
districts  it  is  still  possible  to  find  brass  coins  of  less 
than  mill  values.  The  copper  pieces  are  J  sen  (5  rm), 
1  sen,  and  2  sen  ;  the  5  sen  piece  is  the  only  nickel 
coin ;  the  silver  pieces  are  5  sen,  10  sen,  20  sen,  and 
50  sen  ;  and  the  gold  coins  are  5  yeti,  10  yen,  and  20  yen. 
There  are  also  paper  notes  of  1  yen  and  upward : 
these  are  issued  only  by  the  Bank  of  Japan,  and 
amounted  in  1910  to  over  400,000,000  i/en. 

In  1897  Japan  adopted  the  gold  standard,  so  that 
exchange  fluctuations  with  the  Occident  are  slight, 
and  the  Japanese  currency  has  a  fixed  value,  at  the 
rate  of  about  50  cents  for  the  yenJ^ 

Concerning  the  prospects  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial Japan,  it  may  be  well  to  note  the  views  ^  of 
Baron  Shibusawa,  one  of  the  foremost  of  Japanese 
merchants  and  financiers.  In  referring  to  the  capacity 
of  the  Japanese  for  business,  the  Baron  says :  — 

"  There  are,  however,  four  peculiarities  in  the  Japanese 
character  which  make  it  hard  for  the  people  to  achieve 

1  See  Hamaoka's  pamphlet  on  "  The  Bank  of  Japan," 
*  For  tables  of  currency,  weights,  measures,  etc.,  see  Appendix. 
'  See  "  Japan  and  America  "  for  June  and  July,  1903;  also  consult 
Diosy's  "  New  Far  East,"  chap.  vi. 


40    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

business  success.  These  are:  Firstly,  impulsiveness, 
which  causes  thera  to  be  enthusiastic  during  successful 
business  and  progressive  even  to  rashness  when  filled 
with  enthusiasm  ;  secondly,  lack  of  patience,  which 
causes  easy  discouragement  when  business  is  not  so  suc- 
cessful ;  thirdly,  disinclination  for  union ;  and  fourthly, 
they  do  not  honor  credit  as  they  should,  which  is  so  im- 
portant a  factor  in  financial  success.  These  four  pecu- 
liarities are  to  be  met  with  in  Japanese  business  men  in 
a  more  or  less  marked  degree. 

''Although  Japan,  as  a  country,  is  old,  yet  her  com- 
mercial and  industrial  career  being  new,  there  are  neces- 
sarily many  points  of  incompleteness.  For  example, 
although  we  have  many  railways,  yet  there  is  no  close  con- 
nection made  between  the  railway  station  and  the  harbor. 
Again,  although  we  have  railways,  yet  we  have  no  appro- 
priate cars,  etc.  To  complete  such  work  and  to  open 
up  the  resources  of  the  country,  and  to  allow  Japan  to 
benefit  from  them,  we  need  more  capital.  The  capital 
we  have  in  the  country  is  not  enough.  So  what  is  now 
wanted  in  Japan  is  foreign  capital.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  Japanese  people,  however,  are  opposed  to  the 
idea  of  sharing  any  profits  equally  with  any  other  na- 
tion. Their  exclusiveness  in  this  respect  is  a  distinct 
relic  of  the  old  era.  They  ignore  altogether  the  fact 
that,  with  the  assistance  of  foreign  capital,  the  profits 
would  be  quadrupled.  The  very  idea  of  sharing  with  an 
outside  power  is  distasteful  to  them.  For  instance,  I 
have  been  endeavoring  for  many  years  by  word  and  deed 
to  obtain  a  revision  of  the  laws  relative  to  the  ownership 
of  land  in  Japan  by  foreigners.  I  may  say  that  Marquis 
Ito  and  other  public  men  are  of  my  opinion  in  the  mat- 
ter. Because,  however,  of  this  exclusive  element  in 
Japan,  it  has  still  been  found  impossible  to  allow  for- 
eigners to  own  Japanese  land.     Until  this   change   is 


TRAVEL,   TRANSPORTATION,   COMMERCE       41 

made,  foreign  investors  will  naturally  feel  that  there  is 
little  safety  for  their  investments. 

"  I  am  also  anxious  to  introduce  the  idea  of  a  system 
of  trusteeship  in  order  to  encourage  foreign  nations  to 
invest  their  money  in  Japanese  enterprises.  There  are 
very  many  uncompleted  works  in  Japan,  which  need  out- 
side money  to  finish  them  and  which  would  return  good 
profits.  I  feel  assured  that  it  would  be  possible  for 
prominent  Japanese  bankers  and  capitalists  to  make 
themselves  personally  responsible  for  the  money  of  the 
foreign  investor.  By  such  a  system  the  security  of  the 
investment  would  be  much  increased,  and  the  foreign 
investor  would  have  the  assurance  that  his  money  was 
safe,  even  if  the  business  in  which  it  had  been  invested 
may  have  ceased  to  exist.  The  entire  loss  caused  by 
the  failure  of  Japanese  business  enterprises  would  thus 
be  borne  by  the  Japanese. 

"  The  day  will  come  when  Japan  will  compete  with  the 
powers  already  in  the  field  on  all  lines  of  manufactured 
goods,  but  this  time  must  necessarily  be  far  distant.  The 
trouble  at  present  is  that,  while  the  Japanese  can  imitate 
everything,  they  cannot,  at  the  same  time,  invent  su- 
perior things.  But  the  trade  of  the  Oriental  countries 
will  come  to  be  regarded  as  Japan's  natural  share,  and 
she  is  already  well  capable  of  supplying  it. 

"  The  resources  of  Japan  are  very  varied  and  very  fair 
in  quantity  at  present.  Raw  silk  and  tea  are  abundant, 
while  coal  is  plentiful,  as  also  copper  and  silver ;  gold  is 
not  so  much  so.  I  hope  to  see  our  plentiful  water  sup- 
ply turned  into  good  account  and  harnessed  to  produce 
electric  energy.  This  would  be  a  great  saving  of  ex- 
pense and  would  cheapen  the  cost  of  production  very 
much.  Oil  has  been  found  in  several  districts  and  will 
take  the  place  of  coal  to  a  large  extent,  and  it  is  possible 
that  if  fully  developed  its  export  trade  may  be  made  to 


42  A  HAISTDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

the  neighboring  countries.  In  Hokkaido  we  have  rich 
coal  and  silver  mines  and  oil  wells,  while  in  Formosa 
we  have  rich  gold  mines.  The  iron  we  use  in  our  iron 
works  in  Kiushiu  comes  partly  from  several  mines  of 
Japan  and  partly  from  China. 

"  My  hope  for  the  future  is  that  foreign  capital  may  be 
brought  into  the  country  and  that  the  economic  position 
of  the  country  may  be  made  so  secure  as  to  leave  no 
doubt  possible  in  the  mind  of  the  world  as  to  the  stabil- 
ity of  the  Japanese  Empire.'' 

We  also  take  pleasure  in  quoting  the  same  high 
authority  upon  the  subject  of  the  present  financial 
situation  in  Japan,  as  follows  :  ^  — 

*^  The  present  financial  difficulty  in  Japan  is  only  the 
natural  sequence  of  the  over-expansion  of  business  of 
some  years  ago.  In  every  country  there  are  waves  of 
prosperity  followed  by  periods  of  depression.  I  have 
known,  in  the  economic  history  of  Japan  since  the 
Restoration,  five  or  six  such  waves.  They  do  not  neces- 
sarily injure  the  real  financial  standing  of  the  country. 
The  peculiarities  of  the  Japanese  business  character 
have  much  to  answer  for  in  the  way  of  increasing  the 
appearance  of  financial  insecurity  during  the  times  of 
depression.  After  the  prosperous  times  of  1893  came 
the  war  with  China  and  the  subsequent  indemnity. 
Much  of  the  money  paid  by  China  was  spent  in  Japan, 
and  the  Japanese  people  came  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
increased  circulation  of  money  would  be  permanent. 
They  acted  impulsively  in  many  enterprises,  and  rushed 
into  all  kinds  of  business  because  the  government  had 
over-expanded  its  enterprises  after  the  war.  The  de- 
pression reached  its  height  in  1900  and  1901,  and  busi- 

^  See  "  Japan  and  America  "  for  June  and  Julj,  1903. 


BAKON    SIIIBUSAWA 


TRAVEL,   TRANSPORTATION,   COMMERCE     43 

nesses  were  abandoned  or  reduced  because  it  was  not 
such  easy  work  as  formerly.  By  proper  management 
our  national  income  can  be  made  still  greater  than  our 
expenditure." 

The  national  debt  of  Japan  January,  1913,  was  more 
than  2,500,000,000  yen  ($1,250,000,000),  of  which  almost 
1,500,000,000  yen  ($750,000,000)  was  in  foreign  loans. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For  interesting  accounts  of  travel  when  and  where  modern 
conveniences  were  not  available,  read  "  Unbeaten  Tracks  in 
Japan"  (Bird);  "The  Mikado's  Empire"  (Griffis);  "Noto, 
an  Unexplored  Corner  of  Japan "  (Lowell) ;  "  Glimpses  of 
Unfamiliar  Japan  "  (Hearn) ;  and  papers  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan.  For  similarly  interesting 
accounts  of  travel  with  modern  conveniences  read  "  Jinrikisha 
Days  in  Japan"  (Scidmore);  "Japan  and  her  People"  (Harts- 
horne) ;  "  The  Yankees  of  the  East "  (Curtis);  «  Japan  To-day  " 
(Scherer)  ;  "  Every  Day  Japan  "  (Lloyd). 

On  the  industrial  and  commercial  phases  of  these  topics, 
consult  books,  papers,  magazines,  and  pamphlets  mentioned  in 
the  bibliography  of  the  preceding  chapter ;  especially,  for  the 
latest  statistics,  "The  Japan  Year  Book." 


CHAPTER  IV 
PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,   DRESS 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Ainu ;  ethnology ;  two  types ;  compara- 
tive stature  and  weight;  intellectual  and  moral  qualities.  —  Classes 
in  society  of  old  and  new  regimes;  social  principle.  —  Family  and 
empire.  —  Houses  ;  public  buildings  ;  rooms  ;  foreign  architecture. 
—  Gardens.  —  Food  ;  meals  ;  table  manners  ;  foreign  cooking.  — 
Undress  and  dress ;  European  costume.  —  Bathing.  —  Bibliography. 

WHO  were  the  aborigines  of  Japan  is  yet  a 
disputed  question.  Remains  have  been 
found  of  a  race  of  dwarfs  who  dwelt  in 
caves  and  pits,  but  who  these  people  were  is  not 
positively  known.  They  may  have  been  contempo- 
rary with  the  Ainu,  whom  many  call  "  the  aborigines 
of  Japan."  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  Ainu 
were  once  a  very  numerous  nation,  "the  members 
of  which  formerly  extended  all  over  Japan,  and  were 
in  Japan  long  before  the  present  race  of  Japanese.'* 
But  the  latter  gradually  forced  the  former  northward, 
until  a  final  refuge  was  found  in  Yezo  and  the  Kurile 
Islands.  There  the  Ainu  are  now  living,  but  are 
slowly  dying  out  as  a  race ;  there  are  at  present  only 
about  17,000  remaining.  They  are  said  to  be  "the 
hairiest  race  in  the  whole  world,"  "of  sturdy  build," 
filthy  in  their  habits  (bathing  is  unknown),  addicted 


PEOPLE,  HOUSES,  FOOD,  DRESS  45 

to  drunkenness,  and  yet  "  of  a  mild  and  amiable  dis- 
position."    Their  religion  is  nature -worship.^ 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Japanese  are  classed 
under  the  Mongolian  (or  Yellow)  Race.  They 
themselves  boastfully  assert  that  they  belong  to 
the  "golden  race,"  and  are  superior  to  Caucasians, 
who  belong  to  the  "silver  race"!  As  Mongolians, 
they  are  marked,  not  only  by  a  yellowish  hue,  of 
many  shades  from  the  darkest  to  the  lightest,  but 
also  by  straight  black  hair  (rather  coarse),  scanty 
beard,  rather  broad  and  prominent  cheek-bones,  and 
eyes  more  or  less  oblique.  Some  think  that  the 
Japanese  people  show  strong  evidences  of  Malay 
origin, 2  and  claim  that  the  present  Emperor,  for  in- 

1  "  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,"  by  Miss  Bird  (now  Mrs.  Bishop), 
is  interesting  and  reliable  in  its  treatment  of  the  Ainu  of  that 
day.  Chamberlain  also  has  written  on  the  "Ainos."  The  best 
single  book  is,  of  course,  "  The  Ainu  of  Japan,"  by  Rev.  J. 
Batchelor,  the  leading  authority,  who  has  also  written  a  book 
on  "  Ainu  Folk-lore." 

2  •'  Various  Impressions "  is  the  title  of  an  address  delivered 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Imperial  Education  Society  by  Dr.  Nitobe, 
reported  very  fully  in  the  Ky5iku  K5h5.  Dr.  Nitobe  gave  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  the  South  Pacific.  He  visited  Java, 
many  other  islands,  and  Australia.  At  Java  he  felt  persuaded 
that  an  eminent  French  ethnologist  who  not  long  ago  said  that,  as 
the  result  of  much  investigation,  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Japanese  race  was  %o  Malay,  %o  Mongolian,  and  Mo  mixed, 
was  right.  Among  the  mixed  elements  there  was  an  Aryan  ele- 
ment, which  came  from  India,  and  a  negrito  element.  "  Now  it  is 
supposed,"  says  Dr.  Nitobe,  "  that  this  negrito  element  comes  from 
the  Javanese.  It  no  longer  shows  itself  in  the  Japanese  in  regard 
to  the  form  of  the  nose  and  that  of  the  cheek-bones,  but  it  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  curly  hair  of  certain  inhabitants  of  Kyiishiu.  In  Oshu, 
from  which  I  come,  this  peculiarity  is  not  known.  During  my 
travels  in  the  South  Pacific  Islands  I  was  repeatedly  struck  by 


46    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

stance,  is  of  a  striking  Malay  type.  It  is  not  im- 
possible, nor  even  improbable,  that  Malays  were 
borne  on  the  "Japan  Current"  northward  from 
their  tropical  abodes  to  the  Japanese  islands;  but 
there  is  no  historical  record  of  such  a  movement. 
Therefore  the  best  authorities,  like  Rein  and  Baelz, 
do  not  acknowledge  more  than  slight  traces  of 
Malay  influence.  A  more  recent  theory  concerning 
the  origin  of  the  real  Japanese  —  or  Yamato  men,  as 
they  called  themselves  —  is  that  they  are  descendants 
of  the  Hittites,  whose  capital  was  Hamath,  or  Yamath, 
or  Yamato  ! 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  Japanese:  the 
oval-faced,  narrow-eyed,  small  aristocratic  class; 
and  the  pudding-faced,  full-eyed,  flat-nosed,  stout 
common  people.  Of  these,  the  latter  is  the  one 
claimed  to  be  Malay.  The  plebeians,  having  always 
been  accustomed  to  hard  labor  by  the  sweat  of  the 
brow,  are  comparatively  strong;  the  others,  having 
been  developed  by  centuries  of  an  inactive  life,  have 
inherited  weak  constitutions.  Indeed,  the  people,  as 
a  whole,  are  subject  to  early  maturity  and  early  decay. 
There  is  a  Japanese  proverb  to  this  effect :  "  At  ten, 
a  god-like  child ;  at  twenty,  a  clever  man ;  from  twenty- 
five  on,  an  ordinary  man."  And,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  there  have  been  remarkable  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  careful  investigation  by  Japanese  supports  the 
truth  of  the  proverb.     And  yet  there  seems  to  be  no 

the  similarity  of  Malay  customs  to  our  own.  In  the  structure  of 
their  houses  even  this  was  very  manifest."  —  Japan  Mail. 


c'\  I    'o"  t/1 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DRESS  47 

doubt  that  modern  education  and  conditions  of  life 
show  a  gradual  improvement  in  this-  respect. 

The  average  Japanese,  compared  with  the  average 
European  or  American,  has  a  lower  stature  ^  with  a 
long  body  and  short  legs.  A  good  authority  states 
that  "the  average  stature  of  Japanese  men  is  about 
the  same  as  the  average  stature  of  European  women  "  ; 
and  that  "  the  [Japanese]  women  are  proportionately 
smaller. "  Some  one  has  wittily  called  the  Japanese 
"the  diamond  edition  of  humanity." 

The  Japanese  also  weigh  much  less  than  Euro- 
peans. The  average  weight  of  young  men  of  twenty 
years  of  age  in  Europe  is  about  144  pounds,  while 
the  average  weight  of  the  strongest  young  men  of 
the  suburban  districts  of  Tokyo  was  only  about  121 
pounds ;  which  gives  the  European  an  advantage  of 
23  pounds. 

The  Japanese  are  very  quick  to  learn.  Their 
minds  are  strong  in  observation,  perception,  and 
memory,  and  weak  in  logic  and  abstraction.  As 
born  lovers  of  nature,  they  have  well-trained  powers 
of  observation  and  perception,  so  that  their  minds 
turn  readily  to  scientific  pursuits.  And  as  the  an- 
cient Japanese  system  of  education  followed  Chinese 
models,  the  power  of  memorizing  by  rote  has  been 
strongly  developed,  so  that  the  Japanese  mind  has 
little  difficulty  in  becoming  a  storehouse  of  historical 
and  other  facts.  But,  as  the  powers  of  reasoning 
and   abstraction   have   not    been   well    trained,    the 

1  Dr.  Baelz  estimates  the  average  stature  at  about  6  feet. 


48    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  do  not  take  so  readily  to  mathematical 
problems  and  metaphysical  theorems. 

The  typical  Japanese  is  loyal,  filial,  respectful, 
obedient,  faithful,  kind,  gentle,  courteous,  unselfish, 
generous.^  His  besetting  sins  are  deception,  intem- 
perance, debauchery,  —  and  these  are  common  sins 
of  humanity.  In  respect  to  these  evils,  he  is  un- 
moral rather  than  immoral;  and  in  his  case  these 
sins  should  not  be  considered  so  heinous  as  in  the 
case  of  one  who  has  been  taught  and  knows  better.  ^ 
And  it  is  with  reference  to  these  very  evils  that 
Shinto,  Buddhism,  and  Confucianism  have  been  a 
complete  failure  in  Japan,  and  that  Christianity  is 
making  its  impress  upon  the  nation. 

There  never  were  distinct  and  rigid  castes  in  Japan, 
as  in  Egypt  and  India,  but  formerly  there  were  four 
classes  in  society.  These  were,  in  order,  the  official 
and  military  class;  the  agricultural  class,  or  the 
farmers ;  the  laboring  class,  or  the  artisans ;  and  the 
mercantile  class,  or  merchants.  Above  all  these  were 
the  Emperor  and  the  Imperial  family ;  below  all  these 
were  the  tanners,  grave-diggers,  beggars,  etc.,  who  were 
the  Japanese  pariah,  or  outcasts.  The  first  class  in- 
cluded the  court  nobility,  the  feudal  lords,  and  their 
knights;  they  alone  were  permitted  to  carry  two 
swords,  were  exempt  from  taxation,  and  were  also 
the  special  educated  and  literary  class,  because  they 

1  See  also  subsequent  chapter  on  "  Japanese  Traits." 

2  His  is  simply  a  case  of  what  is  called  "  undeveloped  moral 
consciousness." 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DEESS  49 

had  the  most  leisure  for  study.  The  other  three  classes 
together  constituted  the  common  people,  who  were 
kept  in  rigid  subjection  and  bled  profusely  by  taxes. 

Under  the  present  regime  there  are  three  general 
classes  of  the  entire  population  of  Japan:  the  no- 
bility, the  gentry,  and  the  common  people.  The 
nobility,  created  in  1884,  comprises  five  orders: 
prince,  marquis,  count,  viscount,  and  baron;  the 
gentry  are  the  descendants  of  the  knights  (samurai) 
of  the  old  first  class ;  the  common  people  include  all 
the  rest  of  the  population.  By  the  census  of  1903 
the  nobility  numbered  5,055;  the  gentry,  2,168,058; 
and  the  common  people,  44,559,015.  (These  figures 
are  exclusive  of  Formosa.)  Even  now  the  burden 
of  taxation  falls  upon  the  mass  of  the  common 
people,  especially  upon  the  farming  class,  for  the 
land  tax  is  the  most  important  source  of  revenue  in 
Japan. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  Japanese  society  was, 
and  still  is,  reverent  obedience  to  superiors.  This 
polite  and  humble  deference  is  exhibited  in  their 
language  and  in  their  manners  and  customs,  and  has 
become  so  thoroughly  incorporated  into  their  natures 
that  it  even  yet  resists  the  levelling  tendency  of  the 
present  age.  The  language  is  full  of  honorifics  to 
be  applied  to  or  concerning  another,  and  of  humilifics 
to  be  applied  concerning  self.  I  and  mine  are  thus 
always  ignorant,  stupid,  dirty,  homely,  insignificant, 
etc.,  while  you  and  yours  are  ever  intelligent,  wi^e, 
clean,  beautiful,  noble   etc.     Perhaps  there  is  noth- 

4 


50     A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ing  that  causes  the  student  of  the  vernacular  deeper 
chagrin  than  to  find  that  he  has  made  so  serious  an 
error  as  to  transpose  the  humble  and  the  honorific 
words  or  phrases !  The  ordinary  salutation  is  really 
an  obeisance,  as  it  consists  of  a  profound  bow,  —  on 
the  street  with  body  bent  half  forward,  in  the  house 
with  forehead  touching  the  floor.  This  deep  and 
universal  feeling  of  reverence  for  superiors  and  elders 
early  developed  into  worship,  both  of  the  family  and 
of  the  national  ancestors.  This  is  the  fundamental 
and  central  idea  of  Shinto,  the  native  cult,  of  which 
more  will  be  written  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  Japanese  family  ^  was,  in  its  constitution,  an 
empire,  with  absolute  authority  in  the  hands  of  one 
man.  The  husband  was,  theoretically  and  prac- 
tically, the  great  authority  to  whom  wife  and  chil- 
dren were  subject.  He  was  a  veritable  autocrat  and 
despot;  and  he  received  superciliously  the  homage 
of  all  the  family,  who  literally  bowed  down  before 
him.  The  family,  and  not  the  individual,  was  the 
unit  of  society ;  but  by  the  new  codes  now  in  opera- 
tion the  individual  has  acquired  greater  rights.  There 
is  much  hope,  therefore,  that  gradually  the  tyranny 
of  the  family  will  be  eliminated. 

One  writer  on  Japan  has  well  said :  "  The  Empire 
is  one  great  family;  the  family  is  a  little  empire. "^ 
In  truth,  the  empire  is  founded  and  maintained  on 

^  See  Transactions  Japan  Society,  London,  vol.  ii.,  papers  hy 
Goh  and  Aston. 

.«  See  Lowell's  "Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  chap.  u. 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,   DRESS  51 

the  family  idea  of  one  line  "  in  unbroken  succession  " 
from  Jimmu  Tenno. 

A  house  alone  does  not  make  a  "home,"  but 
merely  gives  it  local  habitation;  and  as  Japanese 
houses  ^  are  unique,  they  deserve  some  consideration. 
Although  brick  and  stone  are  coming  into  use  among 
the  wealthy  classes,  wood  is  the  chief  material  em- 
ployed in  building.  A  typical  Japanese  house  is  a 
slight  and  flimsy  frame  structure  with  straw-thatched, 
or  shingled,  or  tiled  roof.  It  has  no  foundation  in 
the  ground,  but  rests  on  stones  laid  on  the  ground, 
and  stands  wholly  above  the  surface.  This  and  other 
peculiar  features  of  construction  and  ornamentation 
are  the  outcome  of  attempts  to  lessen  the  dangers 
from  the  frequent  and  severe  earthquakes.  The 
outer  doors  and  windows  of  Japanese  houses  are 
called  amado  (rain-doors),  and  are  solid  wood. 
They  slide  in  grooves  above  and  below;  in  stormy 
weather  and  at  night  they  are  closed  and  fastened, 
not  so  tightly,  however,  as  to  prevent  them  from 
rattling;  at  other  times  they  are  open.  The  inner 
doors,  the  windows,  and  sometimes  the  partitions 
between  the  different  rooms  are  lattice  frames,  cov- 
ered with  a  translucent,  but  not  transparent,  white 
paper,  and  running  in  grooves.  These,  too,  as  well 
as  the  opaque  paper  screens  used  between  the  rooms, 
can  be  taken  out,  so  that  all  the  rooms  may  be  turned 
into  one,  or  the  entire  house  be  thrown  open  to  the 
air  of  heaven.     The  floors  are  covered  with  tatami  — ■ 

1  Morse's  "  Japanese  Homes  "  is  the  one  book  on  this  subject. 


62    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

thick,  soft  mats  of  straw,  each  usually  six  by  three 
feet  in  size.  Thus  the  accommodations  of  rooms  are 
indicated  by  the  terms,  "six-mat  room,"  "eight-mat 
room,"  etc.  Inasmuch  as  on  these  mats  the  Japanese 
walk,  sit,  eat,  work,  sleep,  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
them  very  clean.  They  are  carpet,  chair,  sofa,  bed, 
table,  all  in  one,  and  must  not  be  soiled  by  dirty 
sandals,  clogs,  shoes,  or  boots,  all  of  which  are, 
therefore,  to  be  removed  before  entering  a  house. 
It  may  readily  be  seen  that  this  is  quite  an  incon- 
venient custom  for  foreigners! 

Schools,  churches,  offices,  stores,  and  other  places 
for  large  and  frequent  public  gatherings  are  being 
constructed  in  Occidental  style,  with  doors  on 
hinges,  glass  windows,  chairs,  benches,  tables,  stoves, 
grates,  and  other  "modern  conveniences." 

A  room  in  a  Japanese  house  seems  to  an  American 
to  be  comparatively  bare  and  plain,  as  it  is  devoid 
of  furniture  and  bric-^-brac.  There  is  no  stove,  for 
only  a  small  box  or  brazier,  containing  a  few  pieces 
of  charcoal  in  a  bed  of  ashes,  is  used  for  heating 
purposes.  There  are  no  chairs  or  sofas,  for  the 
Japanese  sit  on  their  feet  on  the  floor.  There  are 
no  huge  bed  sets,  for  they  sleep  on  thick  padded 
quilts  spread  on  the  floor  at  night,  and  kept  in  a 
closet  when  not  needed.  There  is  no  large  dining- 
table,  for  each  person  eats  sitting  before  a  small,  low 
lacquer  tray,  or  table,  about  a  foot  high.  There  is 
no  dazzling  array  of  pictures  and  other  ornaments  on 
the  wall  —  only  a  kakemono  (wall  banner)  or  two; 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DRESS  63 

and  there  are  no  miscellaneous  ornaments  set  around 
here  and  there  —  only  a  vase  of  flowers. 

But  more  and  more  are  the  Japanese  coming  to 
build  at  least  parts  of  the  house  in  Occidental  style, 
so  that  it  is  now  quite  common  to  find,  in  houses  of 
well-to-do  people,  a  foreign  room  with  carpet,  table, 
chairs,  pictures,  etc.  Stoves  and  grates,  too,  for 
either  wood  or  coal,  are  being  largely  used.  Mat- 
tresses, springs,  and  bedsteads  are  also  coming  into 
use,  because  sleeping  on  the  floor,  where  one  is 
subject  to  draughts,  has  been  found  to  be  un- 
healthy. In  the  case  of  foreign  rooms,  moreover, 
it  is  generally  unnecessary  to  take  off  the  shoes; 
and  thus  another  frequent  cause  of  colds  is  re- 
moved. A  prevailing  style  of  architecture  at  present 
is  the  hybrid ! 

The  best  rooms  of  a  Japanese  house  are  not  in  the 
front,  but  in  the  rear,  and  have  an  outlook  upon  the 
garden,  which  likewise,  from  its  plainness  and  sim- 
plicity, is  unique.  "Its  artistic  purpose  is  to  copy 
faithfully  the  attractions  of  a  veritable  landscape, 
and  to  carry  the  real  impressions  that  a  real  land- 
scape communicates.  It  is,  therefore,  at  once  a  pic- 
ture and  a  poem ;  perhaps  even  more  a  poem  than  a 
picture."  It  is  in  Japan,  moreover,  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  a  "  garden  "  without  flowers  or  grass  — 
with,  perhaps,  only  "rocks  and  pebbles  and  sand." 
For  the  Japanese  truly  and  literally  find  "sermons  in 
stones,"  and  give  them  not  only  "character"  but  also 
"tones  and  values."     More  than  all  that,  "they  held 


64    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN" 

it  possible  to  express  moral  lessons  in  the  design  of 
a  garden,  and  abstract  ideas,  such  as  charity,  faith, 
piety,  content,  calm,  and  connubial  bliss."  In  Japan, 
therefore,  landscape-gardening  is  and  always  has  been 
a  fine  art.^ 

The  Japanese  may  be  called  vegetarians,  for  it  is 
only  within  a  recent  period  that  meat  has  come  to 
play  any  part  in  their  diet.  Fish,  flesh,  and  fowl 
were  once  strictly  forbidden  as  articles  of  food  by 
the  tenets  of  Buddhism,  but  gradually,  one  after 
another,  came  to  be  allowed  as  eatables.  Even  now 
meat,  though  becoming  more  and  more  popular  as 
an  article  of  diet,  is  not  used  in  large  quantities  at 
one  meal.  Chicken,  game,  beef,  ham,  and  pork  may 
be  found  on  sale  in  most  large  towns  and  cities.  But 
beef  is  cut  up  into  mouthfuls,  and  sold  to  Japanese 
by  the  ounce;  chickens  are  carefully  and  minutely 
dissected,  and  sold  by  parts,  as  the  wing,  the  leg,  or 
an  ounce  or  two  of  the  breast.  It  was  a  matter  of 
great  amazement  to  the  Japanese  of  Mito  that  the 
foreigners  living  there  bought  a  whole  chicken  or 
two,  or  five  or  six  pounds  of  beef,  at  one  time,  and 
devoured  them  all  in  two  or  three  meals! 

Rice  is,  of  course,  the  staple  article  of  diet,  "  the 
staff  of  life"  of  the  Japanese;  and  yet,  in  poverty- 
stricken  country  districts,  this  may  be  a  luxury,  with 

>i  Besides  Morse's  "Japanese  Homes,"  Conder's  "Landscape- 
Gardening  in  Japan  "  (Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol. 
xiv.,  and  in  book  form,  illustrated),  is  very  valuable.  An  instruc- 
tive short  description  of  this  subject  may  be  found  in  chap,  xvi., 
Tol.  ii.,  of  Beam's  *'  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan." 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DRESS  55 

barley  or  millet  as  the  ordinary  food.  Various  vege- 
tables, particularly  beans,  are  much  used,  fresh  or 
pickled;  seaweed,  fish,  eggs,  and  nuts  are  largely 
eaten;  and  a  sauce,  made  of  beans  and  wheat,  and 
sold  in  America  as  "soy,"  is  "the  universal  condi- 
ment." Thin  vegetable  soups  are  an  important  part 
of  their  meals,  and,  as  no  spoons  are  used,  are  drunk 
with  a  loud  sucking  noise,  which  is  a  fixed  habit  in 
drinking.  The  principal  beverages,  even  more  com- 
mon than  water,  are  tea  and  sake.  The  latter,  an 
alcoholic  liquor  brewed  from  rice,  is  taken  hot;  the 
former,  without  milk  or  sugar,  is  also  taken  hot, 
and  is  served,  not  only  at  meals,  but  just  about 
all  the  time.  A  kettle  of  hot  water  is  always  kept 
ready  at  hand,  in  house  or  inn,  so  that  tea  may 
be  steeped  in  a  moment  and  procured  to  drink  at 
any  time.  It  is  always  set  before  a  guest  as  soon 
as  he  arrives,  and  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  every 
household. 

At  meal  time  each  person  sits  on  the  floor  before 
a  small,  low  table  on  which  his  food  is  placed.  They 
use  no  knife,  fork,  or  spoon,  only  chop-sticks ;  and 
do  not  consider  it  in  bad  form  to  eat  and  drink  with 
loud  smacking  and  sucking  sounds.  Their  food, 
when  served,  seems  to  foreigners  more  beautiful  than 
palatable;  it  is  "unsatisfying  and  mawkish."  One 
who  has  probably  had  innumerable  experiences  dur- 
ing a  long  residence  in  Japan  says :  "  After  a  Japanese 
dinner  you  have  simultaneously  a  feeling  of  fulness 
and  a  feeling  of  having  eaten  nothing  that  will  do 


66  A  HAJSTDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

you  any  good."^  Yet,  in  time  foreigners  leam  to 
like  many  parts  of  a  Japanese  bill  of  fare ;  and  when 
travelling  about  the  country,  by  carrying  with  them 
bread,  butter,  jam,  and  canned  meats,  can  get  along 
with  rice,  eggs,  vegetables,  and  chicken  or  fish  to 
complete  the  daily  fare.  In  the  summer  resorts  fre- 
quented by  foreigners  there  are  always  hotels  and 
restaurants  where  only  European  cooking  is  served. 
With  the  introduction  of  Western  civilization  came 
wine,  ale,  beer,  etc.,  which  are  extensively  used  by 
the  Japanese. 

Indeed,  we  must  not  fail  to  take  notice  of  the 
change  that  is  taking  place  in  the  diet  of  the  Jap- 
anese. Bread  and  meat,  which  were  long  ago  intro- 
duced into  the  diet  of  the  army  and  the  navy,  are 
pretty  generally  popular ;  and  many  other  articles  of 
"  foreign  food  "  are  largely  used.  It  is  quite  a  com- 
mon custom  in  well-to-do  families  to  have  at  least 
one  "foreign  meal"  per  day;  and  "foreign  restau- 
rants," especially  in  the  large  cities,  are  well  patron- 
ized. It  is  said,  indeed,  that  first-class  "foreign 
cooking  "  is  cheaper  than  first-class  "  Japanese  cook- 
ing." The  standard  of  living  has  been  considerably 
raised  within  the  past  decade. 

It  is  important  to  touch  briefly  on  the  subject  of 
costume,  though  it  will  not  be  possible  or  profitable 
to  describe  minutely  every  garment.     It  may  not  be 

^  For  descriptions  of  Japanese  meals  or  banquets,  see  Miss 
Scidmore's  "Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan,"  passim;  "The  Yankees 
of  the  East"  (Curtis),  vol.  ii.  chap.  xiv. ;  and  Norman's  "Real 
Japan,"  chap.  i. 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DRESS  57 

improper  to  begin  with  the  topic  of  undress ;  for  the 
Japanese,  perhaps  because  great  lovers  of  nature, 
think  it  nothing  immodest  to  be  seen,  even  in  public, 
in  the  garb  of  nature.  Of  course,  in  the  open  ports 
and  large  cities,  foreign  ideas  of  modesty  are  more 
strongly  enforced ;  but  in  the  interior  the  primitive 
innocence  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  prevails  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  In  hot  weather  children  go  stark- 
naked,  and  men  wear  only  a  loin-cloth:  ''^ Honi  soit 
qui  mal  y  pense^^  —  "Evil  to  him  who  evil  thinks." 

The  ordinary  Japanese  costume  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  a  shirt,  a  loose  silk  gown  fastened  at  the 
waist  with  a  silk  sash,  short  socks  with  separate 
places  for  the  big  toes,  and  either  straw  sandals  or 
wooden  clogs.  For  ceremonial  occasions,  "  a  divided 
skirt,"  and  a  silk  coat,  adorned  with  the  family  crest, 
are  used ;  these  are  called,  respectively,  hakama  and 
haori.  In  winter  two  or  three  padded  gowns  are 
added;  and  in  all  seasons  many  persons  go  bare- 
footed, bare-legged,  and  bare-headed.  The  female 
garb  ^  does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  male  costume, 
except  that  the  sash  is  larger  and  richer  and  the 
gown  is  made  of  lighter  fabrics.  The  women  powder 
and  paint,  oil  their  hair,  and  adorn  their  heads  with 
pretty  combs  and  hairpins. 

The  Japanese  costume  is  certainly  very  beautiful 
and  becoming,  and  is  pronounced  by  medical  authori- 
ties to  be  highly  sanitary.  For  persons,  however,  in 
active  business,  and  for  those  who  work  in  the  fields, 

1  See  Norman's  "  Eeal  JapaD,"  pp.  180-195. 


68    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

it  is  not  so  convenient  as  the  European  costume ;  but 
it  is  altogether  too  charming  to  be  entirely  discarded, 
and,  with  some  modification,  might  well  be  adopted 
in  other  lands.  At  court,  the  European  costume  is 
generally  used;  the  frock  coat  and  evening  dress 
have  become  common  ceremonial  garbs;  and  silk 
hats,  gloves,  and  canes  also  have  become  fashionable. 
The  efforts  of  the  Japanese  to  adopt  Western  cus- 
toms and  to  conform  to  the  usages  of  the  Occident 
in  matters  of  dress  are  sometimes  quite  amusing  to 
those  who  witness  them.^ 

Chamberlain  affirms  that  "cleanliness  is  one  of 
the  few  original  items  of  Japanese  civilization." 
Surely  their  practice  of  frequent  bathing  ought  to 
have  brought  them  to  that  stage  which  is  considered 
"next  to  godliness."  A  bathroom  is  commonly  an 
important  part  of  the  house;  but  if  a  room  is  not 
available  for  that  purpose,  a  bathtub  outdoors  will 
do,  or  the  public  bath-houses  afford  every  facility 
at  a  very  small  charge.  Necessary  exposure  of  the 
person  in  connection  with  bathing  is  not  considered 
immodest;  but,  in  large  cities  at  least,  the  two  sexes 
are  no  longer  permitted  to  bathe  together  promiscu- 
ously. The  hot  baths,  with  water  at  about  110°  F., 
are  generally  unendurable  by  foreigners.     The  latter, 

1  For  instance,  "such  an  attire  as  Japanese  clogs,  flannel 
drawers,  swallow-tail  coat,  and  opera  hat "  has  been  seen ;  and 
another  witness  testifies  to  the  "oddest  mixtures  of  evening  dress 
and  bathing  suits,  naked  legs  with  a  blouse  and  a  foreign  hat,  high 
boots  with  a  kimono,  legs  and  head  Asiatic  with  trunk  European, 
or  vice  versa,  with  endless  combinations  and  variations."  There 
is  a  great  variety,  with  all  kinds  of  fits  and  misfits. 


PEOPLE,   HOUSES,   FOOD,  DRESS  59 

however,  after  some  experience,  may  become  accus- 
tomed to  such  heat  and  find  it  quite  healthy.  "  Sea- 
bathing was  not  formerly  much  practised ;  but  since 
1885  the  upper  classes  have  taken  greatly  to  it,  in 
imitation  of  European  usage,  and  the  coast  is  now 
dotted  with  bathing  establishments."^  The  Jap- 
anese also  resort  "to  an  almost  incredible  extreme" 
to  the  hot  mineral  springs,  which  are  so  numerous 
in  Japan  and  generally  possess  excellent  medicinal 
qualities. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Rein's  "Japan"  is  valuable  on  these  topics;  "Advance 
Japan "  has  a  good  chapter  on  "  Diet,  Dress,  and  Manners  " 
(iv.);  "A  Japanese  Interior,"  by  Miss  Alice  M.  Bacon,  gives 
most  interesting  glimpses  of  the  inner  life  of  the  people ;  Mur- 
ray's "  Story  of  Japan,"  chap.  ii. ;  Knapp's  *'  Feudal  and 
Modern  Japan,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v.  and  vol.  ii.  chap.  iv. ;  and 
"Japan  in  History,  Folklore,  and  Art"  (Griffis),  are  useful; 
Finck  in  his  "Lotos-Time  in  Japan,"  also  gives  interesting 
glimpses  of  these  topics;  and  Miss  Bacon's  "Japanese  Girls 
and  Women  "  (revised  and  illustrated  edition)  is  invaluable 
concerning  family  life.  Miss  Hartshorne's  "Japan  and  her 
People"  is  well  worth  reading  on  these  subjects.  "Japanese 
Life  in  Town  and  Country"  (Knox),  "Dai  Nippon"  (Dyer), 
and  "  Every  Day  Japan  "  (Lloyd)  are  also  valuable. 

1  Chamberlain. 


CHAPTER  V 
MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Birth  and  birthdays ;  marriage ;  death 
and  funeral ;  mourning,  —  Holidays  (national,  local,  class,  and 
religious);  the  "five  festivals";  New  Year's  holidays;  the  other 
four  festivals  ;  floral  festivals ;  religious  festivals.  —  Games ;  wrest- 
ling. —  Theatre  ;  scenery  and  wardrobes ;  chorus  and  pantomime ; 
the  No.  —  Music ;  dancing-girls.  —  Occidentalization.  —  Folk-lore ; 
superstitions  about  lucky  and  unlucky  days,  hours,  ages,  years,  etc. 
—  Bibliography. 

THE  three  great  events  in  the  career  of  a 
Japanese  are,  of  course,  birth,  marriage, 
and  death,  each  of  which  is,  therefore 
celebrated  with  much  formality.  When  a  child  is 
born,  he  or  she  is  the  recipient  of  many  presents, 
which,  however,  create  an  obligation  that  must 
eventually  be  cleared  off.  A  very  common  but 
honorable  present  on  such  an  occasion  consists  of 
eggs  in  small  or  large  quantities,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. When  the  first  American  baby  was 
born  in  Mito,  she  was  favored  with  a  total  of  456 
eggs,  besides  dried  fish,  toys,  Japanese  robes,  and 
other  articles  of  clothing,  etc.,  and  her  parents  were 
favored  with  universal  congratulations,  diluted  with 
condolences  because  the  new  baby  was  a  girl  instead 
of  a  boy!     Japanese  babyhood  is  blithesome.^ 

1  "  The  Wee  Ones  of  Japan,"  by  Mae  St.  John  Bramhall,  can  b« 
recommended. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS  61 

The  birthday  of  an  individual,  however,  is  not 
especially  observed  upon  its  recurring  anniversary; 
for  New  Year's  Day  is  a  kind  of  national,  or  uni- 
versal, birthday,  from  which  age  is  reckoned.  And 
this  loss  of  an  individual  birthday  is  also  made  up 
to  the  boys  and  girls  by  the  two  special  festivals, 
hereafter  described,  of  Dolls  and  of  Flags. 

The  wedding  ceremony  ^  is  quite  simple  but  very 
formal.  The  principal  feature  thereof  is  the  san- 
san-Jcu-do  (three-three-nine-times) ;  that  is,  both  the 
bride  and  the  bridegroom  drink  three  times  out  of 
each  of  three  cups  of  different  sizes.  This  cere- 
mony, however,  does  not  affect  at  all  the  validity 
of  the  marriage ;  it  is  purely  a  social  affair,  of  prac- 
tically no  more  importance  than  the  wedding  recep- 
tion in  America  or  England.  In  Christian  circles 
this  convivial  ceremony  is  omitted,  and  a  rite  per- 
formed by  a  Christian  minister  is  substituted.  As 
marriage  is  only  a  civil  contract,  its  legality  rests 
upon  the  official  registration  of  the  couple  as  hus- 
band and  wife;  and  this  formality  is  often  neg- 
lected, so  that  divorce  is  easy  and  frequent.  And 
as  "matches"  are  generally  made  by  parents, 
guardians,  relatives,  or  friends,  the  mariage  de 
convenance  prevails  in  Japan.  But  the  new  Civil 
Code  throws  safeguards  around  the  institution  of 
wedlock;  and  the  teachings  of  Christianity  have 
already   caused    considerable    improvement    in    the 

1  See  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  114-137 ; 
and  "  A  Japanese  Bride,"  by  Rev.  N.  Tamura,  is  admirable. 


62    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

way  of  elevating  marriage  from  its  low  standard  to 
a  holy  rite. 

To  the  fatalistic  Japanese  death  has  no  terrors, 
especially  as  they  are  a  people  who  seem  to  take 
about  as  much  care  of  the  dead  as  of  the  living. 
Funeral  ceremonies  ^  are  very  elaborate,  expensive, 
solemn,  and  yet  somewhat  boisterous  affairs.  The 
Shinto  rites  are  much  plainer  than  Buddhist  cere- 
monies. In  the  former,  the  cofiSn  is  long  and  low, 
as  in  the  West,  but  in  the  latter  it  is  small  and 
square,  so  that  the  corpse  "is  fitted  into  it  in  a 
squatting  posture  with  the  head  bent  to  the  knees." 
There  are  other  distinguishing  features  of  the  two 
funerals :  the  bare  shaven  heads  of  Buddhist  priests  in 
contrast  with  the  non-shaven  heads  of  Shinto  priests ; 
the  dark  blue  coats  of  the  Buddhist  pall-bearers  in 
contrast  with  the  plain  white  garb  of  the  Shinto 
pall -bearers. 

The  mourning  code  of  Japan  is  rather  strict,  and 
contains  two  features :  the  wearing  of  mourning  gar- 
ments (which  are  white),  and  the  abstinence  from 
animal  food.  The  regular  dates  for  visits  to  the 
grave  are  the  seventh,  fourteenth,  twenty-first,  thirty- 
fifth,  forty-ninth,  and  one-hundredth  days,  and  the 
first,  third,  seventh,  thirteenth,  twenty-third,  twenty- 
seventh,  thirty-third,  thirty-seventh,  fiftieth,  and 
one-hundredth  years. 

As  is  shown  in  another  chapter  ("  Japanese  Traits  "), 
the  Japanese  are  a  merry,  vivacious,  pleasure -loving 

1  See  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xix.  pp.  507-644. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS  63 

people,  who  are  satisfied  with  a  simple  life.  They 
give  and  take  frequent  holidays,  which  they  enjoy 
to  the  fullest  extent.  The  national  holidays  are 
numerous,  and  come  as  follows  every  year ;  — 

Four  Sides'  Worship,  January  1. 

First  Beginning  Festival,  January  3. 

Emperor  Komei's  Festival,  January  30. 

Kigen-setsu,  February  11. 

Spring  Festival,  March  22  (about). 

Jimmu  Tenno  Festival,  April  3. 

Autumn  Festival,  September  24  (about). 

Kanname  Festival,  October  17. 

Emperor's  Birthday,  November  3. 

Niiname  Festival,  November  23. 

Some  of  the  national  holidays  need  a  few  words  of 
explanation.  Kigen-setsu^  for  instance,  was  originally 
a  festival  in  honor  of  the  ascension  of  Jimmu,  the 
first  Emperor,  to  the  throne,  and  was  thus  the  anni- 
versary of  the  establishment  of  the  Old  Empire ;  but 
it  is  now  observed  also  as  the  celebration  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  constitution  (Feb.  11,  1889),  and 
is  thus  the  anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  the 
New  Empire.  The  Jimmu  Tenno  Festival  of  April  3 
is  the  so-called  anniversary  of  the  death  of  that  Em- 
peror. The  Kanname  Festival  in  October  celebrates 
the  offering  of  first-fruits  to  the  ancestral  deities,  and 
the  Niiname  Festival  in  November  celebrates  the 
tasting  of  those  first-fruits  by  the  Emperor.  The 
Spring  and  Autumn  Festivals  in  March  and  Sep- 
tember are  adaptations  of  the  Buddhist  equinoctial 


64    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

festivals  of  the  dead,  and  are  especially  observed  for 
the  worship  of  the  Imperial  ancestors.  The  Em- 
peror Komei  was  the  father  of  the  present  Emperor, 
and  reigned  from  1847  to  1867.  "Four  Sides'  Wor- 
ship "  naturally  suggests  worship  from  the  four  prin- 
cipal directions.  This  and  the  "  First  Beginning 
Festival'*  make  the  special  New  Year's  holidays. 

Besides  these,  there  are  a  great  many  local,  class, 
and  religious  holidays,  including  Sunday,  so  that 
comparatively  few  persons  in  Japan  are  kept  under 
high  pressure,  but  almost  every  one  has  frequent 
opportunities  to  relax  from  the  tension  of  his  occu- 
pation or  profession.  Even  the  poorest,  who  have 
to  be  content  with  a  hand-to-mouth  existence,  take 
their  occasional  holidays. 

The  five  great  festivals  of  the  year  fall  on  the 
first  day  of  the  first  month  (New  Year's  Day),  the 
third  day  of  the  third  month  (Dolls'  Festival), 
the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month  (Feast  of  the  Flags), 
the  seventh  day  of  the  seventh  month  (Festival  of  the 
Star  Vega),  and  the  ninth  day  of  the  ninth  month 
(Chrysanthemum  Festival).  These  are  now  officially 
observed  according  to  the  Gregorian  calendar,  but 
may  also  be  popularly  celebrated  according  to  the 
old  lunar  calendar,  and  would  then  fall  from  three 
to  seven  weeks  later.  And  there  are  not  a  few 
people  who  are  perfectly  willing  to  observe  both 
calendars  and  thus  double  their  number  of  holi- 
days I 

The  greatest  of  these  is  the  New  Year's  holiday 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS  65 

or  season,  which  is  often  prolonged  to  three,  five, 
seven,  or  even  fifteen  days.  The  practice  of  mak- 
ing calls  and  presents  still  prevails,  and,  though 
quite  burdensome,  illustrates  the  thoughtf  ulness,  good 
cheer,  and  generosity  of  the  people.^ 

The  Dolls'  Festival  is  the  one  especially  devoted 
to  the  girls;  and  the  Feast  of  Flags  is  set  apart 
for  the  boys.  The  Festival  of  the  Star  Vega  com- 
memorates a  tradition  concerning  two  starry  lovers  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  Milky  Way,  or  River  of  Heaven. 
The  Chrysanthemum  Festival  seems  to  have  been 
overshadowed  by  the  Emperor's  Birthday. 

There  are  also  many  "flower  festivals,"  such  as 
those  of  viewing  the  plum,  cherry,  wistaria,  iris, 
morning-glory,  lotus,  maple,   etc.^ 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  Buddhist  festi- 
vals is  that  in  honor  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead ;  it  is 
called  Bon-matsuri  and  comes  in  the  middle  of  July. 
Buddha's  birthday  in  April  is  also  observed.  There 
is  a  Japanese  Memorial  Day,  celebrated  twice  a  year 
in  May  and  November,  when  immense  crowds  flock 
to  the  shrines  called  Shokonsha^  and  pay  their  homage 
to  the  spirits  of  those  who  have  died  for  their  coun- 
try. Moreover,  space  would  fail  to  tell  of  the  numer- 
ous local  shrines  and  temples,  Shinto  and  Buddhist, 
where  the  people  flock  annually  or  semi-annually,  to 
"  worship  "  a  few  minutes  and  enjoy  a  picnic  for  the 
remainder  of   the  day.     And,  in  Christian   circles, 

1  See  chap.  xx.  of  Beam's  "  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan.** 

2  See  Appendix,  and  Clement's  "Japanese  Floral  Calendar." 

5 


66    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Christmas,  Easter,  and  Sunday-school  picnics  are  im- 
portant and  interesting  occasions. 

The  common  games  are  chess,  go  (a  very  compli- 
cated game  slightly  resembling  checkers),  parchesi, 
and  cards.  Flower-cards  and  poetical  quotations  are 
old-style,  but  still  popular;  while  Occidental  cards, 
under  the  name  of  torompw  ("trump")  are  coming 
into  general  use.  Children  find  great  amusement 
also  with  kites,  tops,  battledore  and  shuttlecock, 
snow-men,  dolls,  cards,  etc.^  The  chief  sports  of 
young  men  are  wrestling,  rowing,  tennis,  and  base- 
ball. In  the  great  American  game  they  have  be- 
come so  proficient  that  they  frequently  win  against 
the  Americans  and  British  who  make  up  the  base- 
ball club  of  the  Yokohama  Athletic  Association ! 

Professional  wrestling-matches  ^  continue  to  draw 
large  crowds  to  see  the  huge  masses  of  flesh  measure 
their  strength  and  skill.  Jujutsu  is  a  kind  of  wrest- 
ling in  which  skill  and  dexterity  are  more  important 
than  mere  physical  strength.^  Sleight-of-hand  per- 
formers and  acrobats  are  quite  popular. 

The  theatre  2  is  a  very  important  feature  in  the 
Japanese  world  of  amusements,  and  still  remains 
about  the  only  place  where  Old  Japan  can  be  well 
studied.  Theatrical  performances  in  Japan  are,  of 
course,  quite  different  from  those  in  the  Occident,  and 
seem  very  tedious  to  Westerners,  partly  because  they 

1  See  chapter  on  "Children's  Games  and  Sports"  in  "Tht 
Mikado's  Empire." 

2  See  chap.  xx.  of  "The  Yankees  of  the  East"  (Curtis). 
■  See  Hancock's  "  Japanese  Physical  Training." 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  67 

are  so  long  and  partly  because  they  are  unintelligible. 
When  the  writer  attended  the  theatre  in  Mito,  the 
play  began,  thirty  minutes  late,  at  3:30  P.  M.,  and 
continued,  without  interruption,  until  almost  mid- 
night. Then,  according  to  custom,  a  short  supple- 
mentary play  of  almost  an  hour's  duration  followed, 
so  that  it  was  about  one  o'clock  when  he  finally 
reached  home.  The  Japanese,  however,  are  accus- 
tomed to  this  "sweetness  long  drawn  out,"  and 
either  bring  their  lunches  or  slip  out  between  acts 
to  get  something  to  eat  and  drink,  or  buy  tea  and 
cake  in  the  theatre. 

The  wardrobes  and  the  scenery  are  elaborate  and 
magnificent.  The  former  are  often  almost  priceless 
heirlooms  handed  down  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other. Changes  of  wardrobe  are  often  made  in  the 
presence  of  the  audience ;  an  actor,  by  dropping  off 
one  robe  (which  is  immediately  carried  away  by  a 
small  boy),  entirely  metamorphoses  his  appearance. 
One  convenient  arrangement  of  the  scenery  is  that 
of  the  revolving  stage,  so  that,  as  an  old  scene  grad- 
ually disappears,  the  new  one  is  coming  into  view. 
The  supernumeraries,  moreover,  though  theoretically 
invisible,  are  distinctly  present,  but  seem  to  distract 
neither  players  nor  audience.  The  female  parts  are 
usually  taken  by  men  dressed  as  women ;  and  animals 
are  represented  by  either  men  or  wooden  models. 

The  orchestra  plays  an  exceedingly  important  part 
in  a  Japanese  drama.  It  consists  of  the  samisen 
(a  guitar  of  three  strings),  the  fue  (flute),  and  the 


68    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

iaiko  (drum).  It  plays,  not  between  the  acts  to  en- 
tertain the  spectators,  but,  like  the  Greek  chorus, 
during  the  scene,  to  direct  and  explain  the  drama. 
Pantomime  is  an  important  element  in  the  play  and 
exceedingly  expressive.  The  pantomimic  actions  are 
guided  by  the  orchestra  and  the  singers  of  the  chants 
that  furnish  necessary  explanations.  Japanese  plays 
are  mostly  historical,  though  some  depict  life  and 
manners.  It  is  quite  interesting  to  note  that  in  1903 
an  adapted  translation  of  "  Othello  "  was  put  on  the 
Japanese  stage  with  marked  success. 

The  Nd  "dances,"  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
were  at  first  "  purely  religious  performances,  intended 
to  propitiate  the  chief  deities  of  the  Shinto  religion, 
and  were  acted  exclusively  in  connection  with  their 
shrines."  But  they  were  afterwards  secularized  and 
popularized,  as  lyric  dramas.  They  are  compara- 
tively brief,  and  occupy  only  about  an  hour  in  per- 
forming. They  are  now  given  chiefly  as  special 
entertainments  in  high  society  or  court  circles  to 
extraordinary  guests.^ 

Music,  especially  in  connection  with  dancing,  fur- 
nishes another  common  means  of  amusement.  The 
chief  instruments  of  the  old  style  are  the  koto^  a  kind 
of  lyre ;  the  samisen,  already  described ;  the  koki/u,  a 
sort  of  fiddle ;  lutes,  flutes,  fifes,  drums,  etc. ;  while 
the  violin,  organ,  and  piano  are  coming  into  general 

1  On  the  subject  of  the  Japanese  theatre  and  drama,  see 
McClatchie's  "Japanese  Plays"  and  Edwards's  "Japanese  Plays 
and  Playfellows." 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS  69 

use.  These  instruments,  moreover,  are  now  being 
manufactured  by  the  Japanese.  Individuals,  bands, 
and  orchestras,  trained  under  foreign  supervision,  fur- 
nish music,  both  instrumental  and  vocal,  for  private 
and  public  entertainments ;  and  concerts  in  European 
style  are  becoming  very  popular. 

It  used  to  be  that  no  evening  entertainment 
was  considered  complete  without  the  dancing-girls 
(^geisha) ^^  whose  presence  is  never  conducive  to 
morality.  But  a  strong  effort  is  now  being  made, 
even  in  non-Christian  circles,  to  banish  these  evil 
features  of  social  entertainments.  The  Occidental 
mixed  dances  have  not  yet  met  with  great  favor, 
except  that  in  the  court  circle,  which  is  cosmopoli- 
tan, quadrilles,  waltzes,  etc.,  are  encouraged. 

The  manners  and  customs,  especially  in  the  large 
cities,  are  undergoing  considerable  Occidentalizing, 
which  results  at  first  in  an  amusing  mixture,  or  a 
queer  hybrid.  This  is  particularly  true  of  social 
functions  in  official  or  high  life.  It  is,  of  course, 
true  that  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  the  "lower 
classes,"  are  not  yet  to  any  great  extent  affected  by 
the  social  changes  in  the  world  above  their  reach 
and  ken,  and  still  conduct  their  social  intercourse 
more  Japonico^  that  is,  in  the  approved  methods  of 
their  ancestors;  but  in  the  life  of  the  middle  and 
upper  classes,  and  especially  in  official  functions,  the 
influence  of  Occidental  manners  and  customs  is  quite 
marked. 

1  See  Norman's  "  Real  Japan/*  chap.  ix. 


70    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  literature  is  immensely  rich  in  stories  of 
adventure,  most  interesting  historical  and  biographi- 
cal incidents,  folk-lore,  and  fairy  tales.  All  of  these 
are  quite  familiar  to  the  Japanese  child,  whether 
boy  or  girl,  whose  mind  feasts  upon,  and  delights 
in,  the  heroic  and  the  marvellous.  The  youth  and 
the  adults,  also,  are  not  at  all  averse  to  such  mental 
pabulum,  and  flock,  for  instance,  to  the  hall  of 
the  professional  story-teller,  who  regales  them  with 
fact  and  fiction  ingeniously  blended.  Yoshitsune, 
Benkei,  Momotaro,  Kintaro,  and  others  are  common 
heroes  of  folk-lore  and  fiction;  while  "The  Tongue - 
Cut  Sparrow,"  " The  Matsuyama  Mirror,"  "  The  Man 
who  Made  Trees  Bloom,"  are  examples  of  hundreds 
of  popular  fairy  tales.  Japanese  folk-lore  is  an  in- 
structive and  most  interesting  subject,  which  must, 
however,  be  now  dismissed  with  references.^ 

To  an  audience  of  Athenians  on  Mars  Hill,  Paul 
said:  "Ye  men  of  Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all 
things  ye  are  altogether  superstitious."  One  might 
likewise  stand  before  an  audience  of  Japanese  and 
say:  "Ye  men  of  Nippon,  I  perceive  that  in  all 
things  ye  are  altogether  superstitious."  For  most 
faithfully  and  devoutly  do  the  mass  of  the  people 
still  worship  their  innumerable  deities,  estimated  with 
the  indefinite  expression  "  eight  hundred  myriads  " ; 

1  The  best  books  on  this  subject  are  Mitford's  "Tales  of  Old 
Japan,"  Miss  Ballard's  "Fairy  Tales  from  Far  Japan,"  Griffis's 
"Fire-Fly's  Lovers,"  Mme.  Ozaki's  "Japanese  Fairy  Book,"  and 
th€  series  of  crepe  booklets  of  "  Japanese  Fairy  Tales,"  published 
by  the  Kobunsha,  Tokyo. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS  71 

and  most  firmly  do  they  continue  to  believe  in  the 
efficacy  of  charms  and  amulets  and  to  hold  to  in- 
herited superstitious  ideas.  It  is  only  where  the 
common  school  and  Christianity  have  had  full  sway 
that  these  "  foolish  notions  "  disappear.  And  while 
we  have  not  space  for  a  methodical  study  of  Japanese 
superstitions,  we  ought  at  least  to  present,  even  in 
a .  desultory  manner,  some  illustrations,  culled  at 
random  from  various  sources. ^ 

The  days  of  each  month  were  named,  not  only  in 
numerical  order,  but  also  according  to  the  animals 
of  the  Chinese  zodiac.  And  the  latter'  names  were 
perhaps  more  important  than  the  numerical  ones, 
because,  according  to  these  special  names,  a  day  was 
judged  to  be  either  lucky  or  unlucky  for  particular 
events.  "Every  day  has  its  degree  of  luck  for  re- 
moval [from  one  place  to  another],  and,  indeed, 
according  to  another  system,  for  actions  of  any  kind ; 
for  a  day  is  presided  over  in  succession  by  one  of  six 
stars  which  may  make  it  lucky  throughout  or  only  at 
night,  or  in  the  forenoon  or  the  afternoon,  or  ex- 
actly at  noon,  or  absolutely  unlucky.  There  are  also 
special  days  on  which  marriages  should  take  place, 
prayers  are  granted  by  the  gods,  stores  should  be 
opened,  and  signboards  put  up."  Dr.  Griffis  in- 
forms us  in  "The  Mikado's  Empire,"  that  "many 
people  of  the  lower  classes  would  not  wash  their 
heads  or  hair  on  '  the  day  of  the  horse,'  lest  their 

1  See  "Japanese  Calendars,"  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan,  vol.  xxx.  part.  i. 


72    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


hair  become  red."  On  the  other  hand,  this  "horse 
day  "  is  sacred  to  Inari  Sama,  the  rice-god,  who  em- 
ploys foxes  as  his  messengers ;  and  "  the  day  of  the 
rat "  is  sacred  to  Daikoku,  the  god  of  wealth,  who,  in 
pictures,  is  always  accompanied  by  that  rodent.  As 
for  wedding  days.  Rev.  N.  Tamura  says :  "  We  think  it 
is  very  unfortunate  to  be  married  on  the  16th  of  Jan- 
uary, 20th  of  February,  4th  of  March,  18th  of  April, 
6th  of  May,  7th  of  June,  10th  of  July,  11th  of  August, 
9th  of  September,  3d  of  October,  25th  of  November, 
or  30th  of  December,  also  on  the  grandfather's  or 
grandmother's  death  day."  These  dates  are  probably 
applicable  to  only  the  old  calendar.  "  Seeds  will  not 
germinate  if  planted  on  certain  days  "  (Griffis). 

The  hours  were  named,  not  only  according  to  the 
numerical  plan,  but  also  according  to  the  heavenly 
menagerie  in  the  following  way :  — 

1.  Hour  of  the  Eat     .     .     .     11  p.  m.  - 1  a.  m. 

2.  Hour  of  the  Ox 1-3  a.  m. 

3.  Hour  of  the  Tiger 3-5  a.  m. 

4.  Hour  of  the  Hare 6-7  a.  m. 

6.  Hour  of  the  Dragon 7-9  a.  m. 

6.  Hour  of  the  Serpent  ....      9-11  A.  m. 

7.  Hour  of  the  Horse      .     .     11  a.  m.  - 1  p.  m. 

8.  Hour  of  the  Goat 1-3  p.  m. 

9.  Hour  of  the  Monkey 3-5  p.  m. 

10.  Hour  of  the  Cock 5-7  p.  m. 

11.  Hour  of  the  Dog 7-9  p.  m. 

12.  Hour  of  the  Boar 9-11  p.  m. 

The  "hour  of  the  ox,"  by  the  way,  being  the  time 
of  sound  sleep,  was  sacred  to  women  crossed  in  love 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS  T3 

for  taking  vengeance  upon  a  straw  image  of  the 
recreant  lover  at  the  shrine  of  Fudo. 

"  After  5  p.  M.  many  people  will  not  put  on  new 
clothes  or  sandals"  (Griffis).  From  "Superstitious 
Japan":  "If  one  swallows  seven  grains  of  red  beans 
(azuki)  and  one  go  of  sake  before  the  hour  of  the  ox 
on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  he  will  be  free  from 
sickness  and  calamity  throughout  the  year;  if  he 
drinks  toso  (spiced  sake^  at  the  hour  of  the  tiger  of 
the  same  day,  he  will  be  untouched  by  malaria 
through  the  year.  On  the  seventh  day  of  the  first 
month  if  a  male  swallows  seven,  and  a  female  four- 
teen, red  beans,  they  will  be  free  from  sickness  all 
their  lives ;  if  one  bathes  at  the  hour  of  the  dog  on 
the  tenth  day  [of  the  same  month],  his  teeth  will 
become  hard." 

There  are  also  superstitions  about  ages.  Some 
persons,  for  instance,  "are  averse  to  a  marriage  be- 
tween those  whose  ages  differ  by  three  or  nine  years. 
A  man's  nativity  also  influences  the  direction  in 
which  he  should  remove;  and  his  age  may  permit 
his  removal  one  year  and  absolutely  forbid  it  the 
next."  There  are  also  critical  years  in  a  person's 
life,  such  as  the  seventh,  twenty-fifth,  forty-second, 
and  sixty -first  1  years  for  a  man,  and  the  seventh, 
eighth,  thirty-third,  forty -second,  and  sixty-first^ 
years  for  a  woman.  There  is  a  similar  story  to  the 
effect  that  a  child  born  (or  begotten  ?)  in  the  father's 

1  The  sixty-first  year  of  a  person's  life  is  of  special  interest, 
because  it  is  the  first  of  a  second  cycle  of  sixty  years. 


74    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

forty-third  year  is  supposed  to  be  possessed  of  a  devii. 
When  such  a  child  is  about  one  month  old,  it  is, 
therefore,  exposed  for  about  three  hours  in  some 
sacred  place.  Some  member  or  friend  of  the  family 
then  goes  to  get  it,  and  bringing  it  to  the  parents, 
says :  "  This  is  a  child  whom  I  have  found  and  whom 
you  had  better  take  and  bring  up."  Thus  having 
fooled  the  devil,  the  parents  receive  their  own  child 
back. 

From  Inouye's  "  Sketches  of  Tokyo  Life  "  we  learn 
that  aged  persons  provide  against  failing  memory  by 
passing  through  seven  different  shrine  gates  on  the 
spring  or  autumn  equinox.  An  incantation  against 
noxious  insects,  written  with  the  infusion  of  India 
ink  in  liquorice  water  on  the  eighth  day  of  the  fourth 
moon,  Buddha's  birthday,  will  prevent  the  entrance 
of  the  insects  at  every  doorway  or  window  where  it 
is  posted.  January  16  and  July  16  were  and  are 
special  holidays  for  servants  and  apprentices,  and 
considered  sacred  to  Emma,  the  god  of  Hades.  At 
the  time  of  the  winter  solstice  doctors  would  wor- 
ship the  Chinese  Esculapius.  "The  foot-wear  left 
outside  on  the  night  of  the  winter  equinox  should  be 
thrown  away;  he  who  wears  them  will  shorten  his 
own  life.  If  you  cut  a  bamboo  on  a  moonlight  night, 
you  will  find  a  snake  in  the  hollow  of  it  between  the 
third  and  fourth  joints."  "During  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun  or  moon,  people  carefully  cover  the  wells,  as 
they  suppose  that  poison  falls  from  the  sky  during 
the  period  of  the  obscuration."     "If  on  the  night  of 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  75 

the  second  day  of  the  first  moon,  one  dreams  of  the 
takara-lune  (treasure-ship),  he  shall  become  a  rich 
man."  The  first  "dog  day"  and  the  third  "dog 
day"  in  July  are  days  for  eating  special  cakes. 
"  The  third  dog  day  is  considered  by  the  peasantry 
a  turning-point  in  the  life  of  the  crops.  Eels  are 
eaten  on  any  day  of  the  bull  [ox]  that  may  occur 
during  this  period  of  greatest  heat."  The  author 
was  once  warned  by  a  Japanese  woman  that  he  must 
not  take  medicine  or  consult  a  doctor  on  New  Year's 
Day,  because  such  acts  would  portend  a  year  of 
illness. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

There  are  many  good  books  which  portray  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Japanese  people ;  and  as  for  magazine  and 
newspaper  articles  on  the  subject,  their  name  is  legion.  The 
works  of  Griffis,  Chamberlain,  Rein,  Hearn,  Lowell,  Miss 
Bacon,  Miss  Scidmore,  Miss  Hartshorne,  Mrs.  Isabella  Bird 
Bishop,  and  Mitford's  *' Tales  of  Old  Japan"  may  be  recom- 
mended. Good  novels,  like  "  Mito  Yashiki  "  (Maclay),  "  Honda 
the  Samurai  "  (Griffis),  "  In  the  Mikado's  Service  "(Griffis),  etc., 
give  an  insight  into  Japanese  life.  This  may  suffice,  as  more 
particular  references  have  been  given  in  connection  with  many 
of  the  topics  of  the  chapter.  ''A  Japanese  Boy"  (Shigemi), 
"When  I  was  a  Boy  in  Japan"  (Shioya),  "Japanese  Girls  and 
Women  "  (Miss  Bacon),  and  "  The  Wee  Ones  of  Japan  "  (Mrs. 
Bramhall)  give  good  pictures  of  child-life;  and  Dr.  Griffis  has 
edited  an  edition  of  Mrs.  Chaplin-Ayrton's  valuable  "  Child- 
Life  in  Japan."  "Japanese  Life  in  Town  and  Country" 
(Knox),  and  "Every  Day  Japan  "  (Lloyd)  also  contain  good  ma- 
terial in  this  connection. 


CHAPTER  VI 
JAPANESE   TRAITS 

OuTLiNB  OF  Topics  :  First  impressions :  minuteness ;  polite- 
ness and  courtesy  ;  etiquette ;  simplicity ;  vivacity ;  equanimity  ; 
union  of  Stoicism  and  Epicureanism  ;  generosity ;  unpracticality ; 
procrastination ;  humility  and  conceit ;  lack  of  originality  ;  fickle- 
ness ;  aestlieticism  ;  loyalty  ;  filial  piety ;  sentimental  temperament ; 
susceptibility  to  impulse ;  land  and  people. —  Bibliography. 

FIRST  impressions  are,  of  course,  often  deceit- 
ful, as  they  are  likely  to  be  formed  from 
merely  superficial  views ;  but  they  are  quite 
certain  to  emphasize  the  peculiar  characteristics  of 
a  person  or  a  people.  The  points  of  difference  are 
very  evident  at  first,  but  gradually  become  less  ob- 
servable or  prominent,  and  in  time  may  scarcely  be 
noticed.  It  is,  of  course,  undeniable  that  first  im- 
pressions must  be  more  or  less  modified,  but  it  is 
also  true  that  some  remain  practically  unchanged,  or 
are  verified  and  strengthened  by  long  experience. 

In  the  case  of  the  Japanese,  for  instance,  a  first 
and  lasting  impression  is  that  of  minuteness.  This 
characteristic  of  "things  Japanese  "  pertains  less  to 
quality  than  to  quantity,  is  not  a  mental  or  a  moral, 
so  much  as  a  physical  or  dimensional,  feature.  The 
empire,  though  called  Dai  Nippon  (Great   Japan ) 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  77 

is  small;  the  people  are  short;  the  lanes  are  narrow; 
the  houses  are  low  and  small;  farms  are  insignifi- 
cant ;i  teacups,  other  dishes,  pipes,  etc.,  are  like  our 
toys;  and  innumerable  other  objects  are  Lilliputian. 
Pierre  Loti,  the  French  writer,  in  his  description 
of  Japanese  life,  draws  extensively  on  the  diminu- 
tives of  his  native  tongue.  In  business  matters, 
moreover,  the  Japanese  seem  incapable  of  managing 
big  enterprises,  and  do  everything  on  a  small  scale 
with  a  small  capital.  The  saying  that  they  are 
"great  in  little  things  and  little  in  great  things" 
contains  some  truth.  But  it  must,  in  fairness,  be 
acknowledged  that,  of  recent  years,  the  Japanese 
have  begun  to  display  a  remarkable  facility  and  suc- 
cess in  the  management  of  great  enterprises.  They 
are  outgrowing  this  characteristic  of  smallness,  and 
are  even  now  reckoned  among  the  "great  world- 
powers." 

The  Japanese  are  famous  the  world  over  for  their 
politeness  and  courtesy;  they  are  a  nation  of  good 
manners,  and,  for  this  and  other  qualities,  have 
been  styled  "the  French  of  the  Orient."  From 
morning  to  night,  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  the 
entire  life  is  characterized  by  unvarying  gentleness 
and  politeness  in  word  and  act.  Many  of  the  ex- 
pressions and  actions  are  mere  formalities,  it  is  true ; 
but  they  have,  by  centuries  of  hereditary  influence^ 

1  "  The  vast  rice  crop  is  raised  on  millions  of  tiny  farms ;  the 
silk  crop  in  millions  of  small,  poor  homes  ;  the  tea  crop  on  count- 
less little  patches  of  soil."  —  Lafcadio  Hearn. 


78    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

been  so  far  incorporated  into  the  individual  and 
national  life  as  to  be  a  second  nature.  This  trait 
is  one  which  most  deeply  impresses  all  visitors  and 
residents,  and  concerning  which  Sir  Edwin  Arnold 
has  written  the  following :  — 

"Where  else  in  the  world  does  there  exist  such  a  con- 
spiracy to  be  agreeable ;  such  a  widespread  compact  to 
render  the  difficult  affairs  of  life  as  smooth  and  graceful 
as  circumstances  admit;  such  fair  decrees  of  fine  be- 
havior fixed  and  accomplished  for  all ;  such  universal  re- 
straint of  the  coarser  impulses  of  speech  and  act ;  such 
pretty  picturesqueness  of  daily  existence;  such  lovely 
love  of  nature  as  the  embellisher  of  that  existence  ;  such 
sincere  delight  in  beautiful,  artistic  things ;  such  frank 
enjoyment  of  the  enjoyable ;  such  tenderness  to  little 
children ;  such  reverence  for  parents  and  old  persons  ; 
such  widespread  refinement  of  taste  and  habits ;  such 
courtesy  to  strangers;  and  such  willingness  to  please 
and  to  be  pleased  ?  " 

As  stated  above,  the  innate  courtesy  of  the  Japan- 
ese manifests  itself  in  every  possible  way  in  word  and 
deed.  Thus  has  been  developed  an  almost  perfect 
code  of  etiquette,  of  polite  speech  and  conduct  for 
every  possible  occasion;  and  while  these  formali- 
ties are  sometimes  apparently  unnecessary,  often  even 
a  cloak  for  insincerity,  and  also  a  waste  of  time  in 
this  practical  age,  we  cannot  but  lament  the  deca- 
dence of  Japanese  manners. 

Another  prominent  and  prevailing  element  of 
Japanese  civilization  is  simplicity.  The  people  have 
the  simplicity  of  nature  to  such  an  extent  that  the 


JAPANESE   TRAITS  79 

garb  of  nature  is  not  considered  immodest.  They 
find  delight  in  the  simplest  forms  of  natural  beauties, 
and  they  plant  their  standard  of  beauty  on  a  simple 
base.  A  rough  and  gnarled  tree,  or  even  a  mere 
trunk  or  stump;  a  bare  twig  or  branch  without 
leaves  or  blossoms ;  an  old  stone ;  all  kinds  of  flowers 
and  grasses  have  in  themselves  a  real  natural  beauty. 
A  Japanese  admires  the  beauties  of  nature  just  as 
they  are ;  he  loves  a  flower  as  a  flower.  The  Japan- 
ese truly  worship  Nature  in  all  her  varied  forms 
and  hold  communion  with  all  her  aspects.  They 
enjoy  the  simplest  amusements  with  the  simplest 
toys  which,  cheap  and  frail,  may  last  only  an  hour, 
but  easily  yield  their  money's  worth  and  more  of 
real  pleasure.  They  find  the  greatest  happiness  in 
such  simple  recreations  as  going  to  see  the  plum 
blossoms  or  cherry  flowers,  and  gazing  at  the  full 
moon.  They  are,  in  comparison  with  Americans, 
childish  in  their  simplicity ;  but  they  succeed  in  ex- 
tracting more  solid  enjoyment  out  of  life  than  any 
other  people  on  the  globe.  Americans  sacrifice  life 
to  get  a  living:  Japanese,  by  simply  living,  enjoy 
life. 

And  this  leads  to  another  impression  and  char- 
acterization of  the  Japanese  people  as  merry,  light- 
hearted,  and  vivacious.  Careless,  even  to  an  extreme ; 
free  from  worry  and  anxiety,  because  easily  satisfied 
with  little,  and  because  inclined  to  be  excessively 
fatalistic,  —  they  not  only  are  faithful  disciples  of 
the  Epicurean  philosophy,  that  happiness  or  pleasure 


80    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

is  the  summum  honum  of  life,  but  they  succeed  in 
being  happy  without  much  exertion.  They  believe 
that  men  "  by  perpetual  toil,  bustle,  and  worry  render 
themselves  unfit  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  which  nature 
places  within  their  reach";  and  that  the  Occidental, 
and  especially  the  American,  life  of  high  pressure, 
with  too  much  work  and  too  little  play,  is  actually 
making  Jack  a  dull  boy.  It  is  certainly  to  be  hoped, 
but  perhaps  in  vain,  that  the  increasing  complexity 
of  modern  life  in  Japan  will  not  entirely  obliterate 
the  simplicity  and  vivacity  of  the  Japanese ;  for  they 
seem  to  "  have  verily  solved  the  great  problem  — 
how  to  be  happy  though  poor." 

The  Japanese  are,  however,  extremely  stoical 
in  belief  and  behavior,  and  can  refrain  as  rigidly 
from  manifestations  of  joy  or  sorrow  as  could  a 
Spartan  or  a  Roman.  ^  Many  a  Japanese  Leonidas, 
Brutus,  or  Cato  stands  forth  as  a  typical  hero  in 
their  annals.  Without  the  least  sign  of  suffering 
they  can  experience  the  severest  torture,  such  as  dis- 
embowelling themselves ;  and  without  a  word  of  com- 
plaint they  receive  adversity  or  affliction.  Shikata 
ga  nai  ("  There  is  no  help  ")  is  the  stereotyped  phrase 
of  consolation  from  the  least  to  the  greatest  loss, 
injury,  or  affliction.  For  a  broken  dish,  a  bruise, 
a  broken  limb,  a  business  failure,  a  death,  weeping 
is  silly,  sympathy  is  useless;  alike  for  all,  shikata 
ga  nai, 

^  The  Japanese  seem  to  hare  no  nerves ;  or,  at  leatt,  the^r 
nervous  system  is  much  less  sensitive  than  oars. 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  81 

It  is  possibly  this  combination  or  union  of  Stoicism 
and  Epicureanism  that  makes  the  real  and  complete 
enjoyment  of  life.  The  following  paragraph  pictures 
graphically  the  contrasting  characteristics  of  Japanese 
and  American  women :  "  It  is  said  that  the  habitual 
serenity  of  Japanese  women  is  due  to  their  freedom 
from  small  worries.  The  fashion  of  their  dress  never 
varies,  so  they  are  saved  much  anxiety  of  mind  on 
that  subject.  Housekeeping  is  simplified  by  the  ab- 
sence of  draperies  and  a  crowd  of  ornaments  to  gather 
dust,  and  the  custom  of  leaving  footwear  at  the  en- 
trance keeps  out  much  mud  and  dirt.  With  all  our 
boasted  civilization,  we  may  well  learn  from  the 
Orientals  how  to  prevent  the  little  foxes  of 'petty 
anxieties  from  spoiling  the  vines  of  our  domestic 
comfort.  If  American  housekeepers  could  eliminate 
from  their  lives  some  of  the  unnecessary  care  of 
things,  it  would  probably  smooth  their  brows  and  tone 
down  the  sharpened  expression  of  their  features." 

The  Japanese  are,  by  instinct,  a  very  unselfish  and 
generous  people.  These  two  seemingly  synonymous 
adjectives  are  purposely  used;  for  the  Japanese 
possess,  not  only  the  negative  and  passive  virtue  of 
unselfishness,  but  also  its  positive  and  active  expres- 
sion in  generosity;  they  are  not  merely  careless 
and  thoughtless  of  self,  but  they  are  careful  and 
thoughtful  of  others.  In  fact,  their  philanthropic 
instincts  are  so  strong  that  neither  excessive  wealth 
nor  extreme  pauperism  is  prevalent.  These  two 
traits  had  their  origin,  probably,  in  a  contempt  for 


82  A  HAOTDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mere  money-making  and  the  lack  of  a  strong  desire 
for  wealth.  The  merchant,  engaged  in  trade,  —  that 
is,  in  money-making  pursuits,  —  was  ranked  below 
the  soldier,  the  farmer,  and  the  artisan.  The  typical 
Japanese  believed  that  "the  love  of  money  is  the 
root  of  all  evil,"  and  was  not  actuated  by  "the 
accursed  greed  for  gold"  (auri  sacra  fames).  No 
sordid  views  of  life  on  a  cash  basis  were  held  by  the 
Japanese,  and  not  even  the  materialism  of  modern 
life  has  yet  destroyed  their  generous  and  philan- 
thropic instincts.  They  are  as  truly  altruistic  as 
Occidentals  are  egoistic. 

The  modern  characteristic  expressed  by  the  term 
"practical"  does  not  belong  to  the  Japanese,  who 
are  rather  visionary  in  disposition.  This  trait  is  un- 
doubtedly an  effect  of  the  old  distaste  for  money- 
making  pursuits,  and  renders  the  Japanese  people, 
on  the  whole,  incapable  of  attending  strictly  and 
carefully  to  the  minutisB  of  business.  They  do  not, 
indeed,  appear  to  possess  the  mental  and  moral  quali- 
ties which  go  to  make  a  successful  merchant  or  busi- 
ness man.i  This  is  the  testimony  both  of  those  who 
have  studied  their  psychological. natures  and  of  those 
who  have  had  actual  business  experience  with  them. 
The  former  say  that  unpracticality  and  a  distaste  for 
money-making  are  natural  elements  of  the  Japanese 
character,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that,  in  ancient 
society,  the  merchant  was  assigned  to  the  fourth 
class  —  below  the  soldier,  the  farmer,  the  artisan. 
1  See  Baron  Shibusawa'a  opinion,  pp.  4(M3. 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  83 

"The  temperament,  the  training,  and  the  necessary 
materials  are,  for  the  most  part,  lacking  " ;  and  these 
cannot,  in  spite  of  the  impressionableness  of  the 
Japanese  nature,  be  readily  acquired  and  developed. 
Business  men,  moreover,  who  have  had  actual  deal- 
ings with  the  Japanese,  complain  of  dishonesty, ^ 
"pettiness,  constant  shilly-shallying,"  and  unbusi- 
ness-like  habits ;  and  call  them  "good-natured,  artistic, 
and  all  that,  but  muddle-pated  folks  when  it  comes 
to  matters  of  business." 

One  illustration  of  their  natural  incapacity  for 
business  life  is  found  in  the  fact  that  they  had  no 
idea  of  time.  They  did  not  understand  the  value, 
according  to  our  standards,  of  the  minutes,  and  were 
much  given  to  what  we  call  a  "waste  of  time." 
They  were  not  accustomed  to  reckon  time  minute-ly, 
or  to  take  into  notice  any  period  less  than  an  hour, 
and  considered  it  nine  o'clock  until  it  was  ten  o'clock. 
Moreover,  the  hour  of  the  old  "time-table"  was  120 
minutes  long.^     Besides,  the  Japanese  are  too  digni- 

1  But  "  the  peasantry  is,  in  the  main,  honest." 

2  See  "Japanese  Calendars,"  Transactions  Asiatic  Societj  of 
Japan,  vol.  xxx.  part  i. 

The  Land  of  Approximate  Time. 

Here 's  to  the  Land  of  Approximate  Time ! 

Where  nerves  are  a  factor  unknown, 
Where  acting  as  balm  are  manners  calm, 

And  seeds  of  sweet  patience  are  sown. 

Where  every  clock  runs  as  it  happens  to  please, 

And  they  never  agree  on  their  strikes ; 
Where  even  the  sun  often  joins  in  the  fun, 

And  rises  whenever  he  likes.  —  Jingles  from  Japan, 


84    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

fied  to  be  in  a  hurry ;  so  that,  if  they  miss  one  train, 
they  do  not  fume  and  fret  because  they  have  to  wait 
even  several  hours  for  the  next  train,  but  take  it  all 
calmly  and  patiently.  And  as  clocks  and  watches 
are  still  somewhat  of  a  luxury  to  the  common  people, 
we  must  not  expect  them  to  come  up  at  once  to 
our  ideas  of  strict  punctuality.  But  in  school  and 
office  and  business  they  are  learning  habits  of 
promptness  and  coming  to  realize  that  "time  is 
money  " ;  so  that  recent  years  have  shown  a  marked 
improvement. 

In  the  character  of  the  Japanese  are  blended  the 
two  inharmonious  elements  of  humility  and  conceit. 
Their  language,  customs,  and  manners  are  permeated 
with  the  idea  of  self-abasement,  "in  honor  prefer- 
ring one  another";  but  their  minds  are  filled  with 
excessive  vanity,  individual  and  national.  They  call 
their  own  country  "  Great  Japan, "  and  have  always 
had  a  strong  faith  in  the  reality  of  its  greatness.  The 
precocity  and  conceit  of  Japanese  youth  are  very  no- 
ticeable. A  schoolboy  of  fourteen  is  always  ready 
to  express  with  confidence  and  positiveness  his 
criticisms  on  Occidental  and  Oriental  politics,  phi- 
losophy, and  religion.  Young  Japan,  whether  indi- 
vidually or  collectively,  is  now  in  the  Sophomore 
class  of  the  World's  University.  Japan  is  self- 
assertive,  self-confident,  and  independent.  But  the 
marvellous  achievements  in  the  transformation  of 
Japan  during  the  past  half -century  are  some  excuse 
for  the    development   of  vanity;    and    the  future, 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  85 

with  its  responsibilities,  surely  demands  a  measure 
of  self-confidence. 

The  Japanese  are  commonly  criticised  as  being 
imitative  rather  than  initiative  or  inventive;  and 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  a  study  of  their  history 
bears  out  this  criticism.  The  old  civilization  was 
very  largely  borrowed  from  the  Chinese,  perhaps 
through  the  Koreans;  and  in  modern  times  we 
have  witnessed  a  similar  adoption  and  imitation  of 
Occidental  civilization.  But  it  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  in  few  cases  was  there  servile  imitation ; 
for,  in  almost  every  instance,  there  was  an  adapta- 
tion to  the  peculiar  needs  of  Japan.  And  yet  even 
this  assimilation  might  show  that  the  Japanese  have 
"great  talent,  but  little  genius"  (Munzinger),  or 
"little  creative  power"  (Rein).  However,  there 
have  been  indications  of  late  years  that  the  Japanese 
mind  is  developing  inventive  power.  Originality  is 
making  itself  known  in  many  really  remarkable  in- 
ventions, especially  along  mechanical  lines.  Rifles, 
repeating  pistols,  smokeless  gunpowder,  guncotton, 
and  bicycle  boats  are  a  few  illustrations  of  Japanese 
inventions.  Moreover,  many  of  the  Japanese  inven- 
tors have  secured  letters  patent  in  England,  Ger- 
many, France,  Austria,  and  the  United  States.  In 
scientific  discoveries,  too,  the  Japanese  are  coming 
forward. 

The  Japanese  have  also  been  frequently  accused 
of  fickleness,  and  during  the  past  fifty  years  have  cer- 
tainly furnished  numerous  reasons  for  such  a  charge. 


86    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

They  have  seemed  to  shift  about  with  "  every  wind 
of  doctrine,"  and,  like  the  Athenians  in  Paul's  day, 
have  been  often  attracted  by  new  things.  But  Den- 
ing's  defence  against  this  accusation  is  worthy  of 
notice,  and  seems  quite  reasonable.  He  claims  that 
"this  peculiarity  is  accidental,  not  inherent";  that 
there  was  "  no  lack  of  permanence  in  their  laws,  in- 
stitutions, and  pursuits  in  the  days  of  their  isola- 
tion ";  that  in  recent  times  "their  attention  has  been 
attracted  by  such  a  multitude  of  [new]  things  .  .  . 
that  they  have  found  great  difficulty  in  making  a 
judicious  selection";  and  the  rapid  changes  "have 
not  been  usually  dictated  by  mere  fickleness,  but 
have  resulted  from  the  wish  to  prove  all  things.^'' 
Chamberlain,  likewise,  refers  to  so-called  "charac- 
teristic traits  "  that  are  "  characteristic  merely  of  the 
stage  through  which  the  nation  is  now  passing." 
And  certainly  a  growing  steadfastness  of  purpose 
and  action  is  perceptible  in  many  phases  of  Japanese 
life. 

The  Japanese  are  pre-eminently  an  aesthetic  people. 
In  all  sections,  among  all  classes,  art  reigns  supreme. 
It  permeates  everything,  great  or  small.  "  Whatever 
these  people  fashion,  from  the  toy  of  an  hour  to  the 
triumphs  of  all  time,  is  touched  by  a  taste  unknown 
elsewhere. "  ^ 

The  national  spirit  is  excessively  strong  in  Japan, 
and  has  been  made  powerful  by  centuries  of  develop- 
ment.    Every  Japanese  is  born,  lives,  and  dies  for 

1  For  particulars  on  this  point,  see  chapter  on  "  JSsthetic  Japan.** 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  87 

his  country.  Loyalty  is  the  highest  virtue;  and 
YamatO'damashii  (Japan  spirit)  is  a  synonym  too 
often  of  narrow  and  inordinate  patriotism.  But 
the  vision  of  the  Japanese  is  broadening,  and  they 
are  learning  that  cosmopolitanism  is  not  necessarily 
antagonistic  to  patriotism.  They  used  to  harp  on 
"  The  Japan  of  the  Japanese  " ;  later  they  began  to 
talk  about  "  The  Japan  of  Asia  " ;  but  now  they  wax 
eloquent  over  "The  Japan  of  the  World." 

Filial  piety  is  the  second  virtue  in  the  Japanese 
ethics,  and  is  often  carried  to  a  silly  extreme.  The 
old  custom  of  inkyo  made  it  possible  for  parents, 
even  while  they  were  still  able-bodied,  to  retire  from 
active  work  and  become  an  incubus  on  the  eldest 
son,  perhaps  just  starting  out  in  his  life  career. 
But  now  there  is  a  law  that  no  one  can.  become  inkyo 
before  he  is  sixty  years  of  age.  And  yet  filial  piety 
can  easily  nullify  the  law  I 

Professor  George  T.  Ladd,  who  has  made  a  special 
study  of  the  Japanese  from  the  psychological  point  of 
view,  sums  up  their  "character"  as  of  the  "senti- 
mental temperament. "  ^  The  following  are  sugges- 
tive passages :  — 

"  This  distinctive  Japanese  temperament  is  that  which 
Lotze  has  so  happily  called  the  '  sentimental  tempera- 
ment.' It  is  the  temperament  characteristic  of  youth, 
predominatingly,  in  all  races.  It  is,  as  a  temperament, 
characteristic  of  all  ages,  of  both  sexes,  and  of  all  classes 
of  population,  among  the  Japanese.     But,  of  course,  in 

^  See  "  Scribner's  Monthly  "  for  January,  1895. 


88    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japan  as  everywhere,  the  different  ages,  sexes,  and 
classes  of  society,  differ  in  respect  to  the  purity  of  this 
temperamental  distinction.  Many  important  individual 
exceptions,  or  examples  of  other  temperaments,  also 
occur. 

"  The  distinguishing  mark  of  the  sentimental  tempera- 
ment is  great  susceptibility  to  variety  of  influences  — 
especially  on  the  side  of  feeling,  and  independent  of 
clear  logical  analysis  or  fixed  and  well-comprehended 
principles  —  with  a  tendency  to  a  will  that  is  impulsive 
and  liable  to  collapse.  Such  susceptibility  is  likely  to 
be  accompanied  by  unusual  difficulty  in  giving  due 
weight  to  those  practical  considerations,  which  lead  to 
compromises  in  politics,  to  steadiness  in  labor,  to  patience 
in  developing  the  details  of  science  and  philosophy,  and 
to  the  establishment  of  a  firm  connection  between  the 
higher  life  of  thought  and  feeling  and  the  details  of 
daily  conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  artistic 
temperament,  the  temperament  which  makes  one  *  in- 
teresting,' the  'clever'  mind,  the  temperament  which 
has  a  suggestion  of  genius  at  its  command.  .  .  . 

"  Japan  is  the  land  of  much  natural  scenery  that  is 
pre-eminently  interesting  and  picturesque.  It  is  the 
land  of  beautiful  green  mountains  and  of  luxurious  and 
highly  variegated  flora.  It  is  the  land  that  lends  itself 
to  art,  to  sentiment,  to  reverie  and  brooding  over  the 
mysteries  of  nature  and  of  life.  But  it  is  also  the  land 
of  volcanoes,  earthquakes,  floods,  and  typhoons;  the 
land  under  whose  thin  fair  crust,  or  weird  and  gro- 
tesque superficial  beauty,  and  in  whose  air  and  sur- 
rounding waters,  the  mightiest  destructive  forces  of 
nature  slumber  and  mutter,  and  betimes  break  forth 
with  amazing  destructive  effect.  As  is  the  land,  so  — 
in  many  striking  respects  —  are  the  people  that  dwell 
in  it.     The  superficial  observer,  especially  if  he  himself 


JAPANESE  TRAITS  89 

be  a  victim  of  the  unmixed  sentimental  temperament, 
may  find  everything  interesting,  aesthetically  pleasing, 
promising  continued  kindness  of  feeling,  and  unwearied 
delightful  politeness  of  address.  But  the  more  profound 
student  will  take  note  of  the  clear  indications,  that 
beneath  this  thin,  fair  crust,  there  are  smouldering  fires 
of  national  sentiment,  uncontrolled  by  solid  moral  prin- 
ciple, and  unguided  by  sound,  practical  judgment.  As 
yet,  however,  we  are  confident  in  the  larger  hope  for  the 
future  of  this  most  ^  interesting  '  of  Oriental  races." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Rein's  "Japan,"  "The  Gist  of  Japan"  (Peery),  "Japan 
and  its  Regeneration"  (Gary),  "The  Soul  of  the  Far  East" 
(Lowell),  "Feudal  and  Modern  Japan"  (Knapp),  "Lotos- 
Time  in  Japan  "  (Finck),  and  Hearn's  works  discuss  the  sub- 
ject of  Japanese  characteristics  with  intelHgence  from  various 
points  of  view.  The  most  interesting  and  instructive  Japanese 
writer  on  the  subject  is  Nitobe  in  his  "  Bushido,  the  Soul  of 
Japan."  Dening's  paper  in  vol.  xix.  Transactions  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan  is  very  valuable.  "The  Evolution  of  the 
Japanese  "  (Gulick)  should  also  be  carefully  studied,  especially 
as  he  differs  from  Lowell  and  others,  who  contend  that  Ori- 
entals in  general,  and  Japanese  in  particular,  have  no  "  soul," 
or  distinct  personality. 

Hearn's  best  work,  entitled  "  Japan,  An  Interpretation,"  is 
interesting  and  instructive  in  this  connection.  "  Japanese  Life 
in  Town  and  Country  "  (Knox),  "  Dai  Nippon  "  (Dyer),  chap, 
iii.,  and  "Every  Day  Japan"  (Lloyd)  also  throw  light  on  this 
topic. 


CHAPTER  VII 
HISTORY    (OLD   JAPAN) 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Outline  of  mythology  and  history ;  sources 
of  material ;  earlier  periods ;  Japanese  and  Graeco-Roman  mythol- 
ogy ;  prehistoric  period ;  continental  influences ;  capitals ;  Imperi- 
alism ;  Fujiwara  Epoch ;  Taira  and  Minamoto ;  H5jo  tyranny ; 
Ashikaga  Period ;  Nobunaga  and  Hideyoshi ;  lyeyasu ;  Tokugawa 
Dynasty.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  mythology  and  history  of  Japan  may  be 
outlined  in  the  following  manner;  — 
A.  Sources  of  material. 

1.  Oral  tradition. 

2.  Kojiki  [711  A.  D.]. 

3.  Nihongi  [720  a.  d.]. 
B.  Chronology. 

I.  Old  Japan. 
1.  "  Divine  Ages."     Creation   of  world ;   Izanagi  and 
Izanami ;  Sun-goddess  and  brother ;  Ninigi ;  Princes 
Fire-Shine  and  Fire-Fade ;  Jimmu. 

2.  Prehistoric  Period  [660  b.  C.-400  (?)  a.  d.].  Jimmu 
Tenno ;  ''  Sujiii,  the  Civilizer  "  ;  Yamato-Dake  ;  Em- 
press Jingu ;  Invasion  of  Korea ;  Ojin,  deified  as 
Hachiman,  the  Japanese  Mars  ;  Take-no-uchi.  Native 
elements  of  civilization.     Chinese  literature. 

3.  Imperialistic  Period  [400  (?)-888  a.  d.].  Continental 
influences  (on  language  and  literature,  learning,  gov- 
ernment, manners  and  customs,  and  religion)  ;  Bud- 
dhism ;  Shotoku  Taishi ;  practice  of  abdication  j  Nara 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAN)  91 

Epoch ;  capital  settled  at  Kyoto ;    Sugawara ;  Fuji- 
wara  family  established  in  regency  (888  A.  d.). 

4.  Civil  Strife  [888-1603  a.d.]  .  Fujiwara  bureaucracy  ; 
Taira  supremacy  (1156-1185)  ;  wars  of  red  and  white 
flags ;  Yoritomo  and  Yoshitsune  ;  Minamoto  suprem- 
acy (1185-1199) ;  first  Shogunate ;  Hojo  tyranny 
(1199-1333)  ;  Tartar  armada ;  Kusunoki  and  Nitta ; 
Ashikaga  supremacy  (1333-1573) ;  "  War  of  the 
Chrysanthemums";  tribute  to  China;  fine  arts 
and  architecture;  cha-no-yu ;  Portuguese;  Francis 
Xavier;  spread  of  Christianity;  Nobunaga,  perse- 
cutor of  Buddhists  (1573-1582)  ;  Hideyoshi,  '^Na- 
poleon of  Japan  '^  (1585-1598)  ;  persecution  of 
Christianity ;  invasion  of  Korea ;  lyeyasu ;  battle 
of  Sekigahara  (1600  a.  d.). 

5.  Tokugawa  Feudalism  [1603-1868  a.  d.].  lyeyasu 
Shogun  (1603)  ;  capital  Yedo,  girdled  by  friendly 
fiefs  ;  perfection  of  feudalism ;  Dutch  ;  Will  Adams  ; 
English ;  extermination  of  Christianity ;  seclusion 
and  crystallization  (1638-1853);  Confucian  influences. 

II.  New  Japan. 
5  (continued).  Perry's  Expedition  ;  treaties  with  for- 
eign nations ;  internal  strife  ;  Eichardson  affair ; 
Shimonoseki  affair  ;  resignation  of  Shoguh  ;  abolition 
of  Shogunate  ;  Revolutionary  War  ;  New  Imperialism  ; 
Imperial  capital  Yedo,  renamed  Tokyo;  Meiji  Era. 

6.  New  Empire  [1868-  ].  Opening  of  ports  and 
cities ;  "  Charter  Oath  '^ ;  telegraphs,  light-houses, 
postal  system,  mint,  dockyard,  etc. ;  outcasts  ac- 
knowledged as  human  beings  ;  abolition  of  feudalism ; 
first  railway,  newspaper,  and  church  ;  Imperial  Univer- 
sity; Yokohama  Missionary  Conference;  Gregorian 
calendar  ;  anti-Christian  edicts  removed ;  Saga  rebel- 
lion ;  Formosan  Expedition ;  assembly  of  governors ; 
Senate ;  treaty  with  Korea ;    Satsuma   rebellion  ;  bi- 


92    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

metallism  ;  Loo  Choo  annexed ;  new  codes  ;  prefectural 
assemblies  ;  Bank  of  Japan ;  Osaka  Missionary  Con- 
ference ;  new  nobility ;  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany ;  Privy  Council ;  Prince  Haru  made  Crown 
Prince ;  anti-foreign  reaction ;  promulgation  of  Con- 
stitution ;  first  Diet ;  Gif u  earthquake ;  war  with 
China ;  Formosa ;  tariff  revision  ;  gold  standard ; 
freedom  of  press  and  public  meetings  ;  opening  of 
Japan  by  new  treaties ;  war  with  China :  Tokyo 
Missionary  Conference ;  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance. 

The  student  of  Japanese  history  is  confronted,  at 
the  outset,  with  a  serious  difficulty.  In  ancient 
times  the  Japanese  had  no  literary  script,  so  that 
all  events  had  to  be  handed  down  from  generation 
to  generation  by  oral  tradition.  The  art  of  waiting 
was  introduced  into  Japan,  from  China  probably,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  third  century  A.  D. ;  but  it  was 
not  used  for  recording  events  until  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century.  All  these  early  records,  more- 
over, were  destroyed  by  fire ;  so  that  the  only  "  reli- 
ance for  information  about  .  .  .  antiquity"  has  to 
be  placed  in  the  Kojihi^^  or  "Records  of  Ancient 
Matters,"  and  the  Nihongi^'^  or  "Chronicles  of 
Japan."  The  former,  completed  in  712  A.  D.,  is 
written  in  a  purer  Japanese  style ;  the  latter,  finished 
in  720  A.  D.,  is  "much  more  tinctured  with  Chinese 
philosophy  " ;  though  differing  in  some  details,  they 

1  Chamberlain's  English  version  is  found  in  Transactions  Asiatic 
Society  oH  Japan,  vol.  x.,  Supplement. 

2  Aston's  English  version  is  found  in  Transactions  Japan  Society, 
London,  Supplement. 


•   <   c   -.   t   '■''» 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAN)  \f6 

are  practically  concordant,  and  supply  the  data  upon 
which  the  Japanese  have  constructed  their  "history." 
It  is  thus  evident  that  the  accounts  of  the  period 
before  Christ  must  be  largely  mythological,  and  the 
records  of  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era  must  be  a  thorough  mixture  of  fact  and  fiction, 
which  it  is  difficult  carefully  to  separate. 

According  to  Japanese  chronology,  the  Empire  of 
Japan  was  founded  by  Jimmu  Tenno  in  660  b.  c. 
This  was  when  Assyria,  under  Sardanapalus,  was  at 
the  height  of  its  power ;  not  long  after  the  ten  tribes 
of  Israel  had  been  carried  into  captivity,  and  soon 
after  the  reign  of  the  good  Hezekiah  in  Judah ;  before  • 
Media  had  risen  into  prominence;  a  century  later 
than  Lycurgus,  and  a  few  decades  before  Draco ;  and 
during  the  period  of  the  Roman  kingdom.  But 
according  to  a  foreign  scholar  who  has  sifted  the 
material  at  hand,  the  first  absolutely  authentic  date 
in  Japanese  history  is  461  A.  D.,^  —  just  the  time 
when  the  Saxons  were  settling  in  England.  If, 
therefore,  the  Japanese  are  given  the  benefit  of  more 
than  a  century,  there  yet  remains  a  millennium  which 
falls  under  the  sacrificial  knife  of  the  historical  critic. 
But  while  we  cannot  accept  unchallenged  the  details 
of  about  a  thousand  years,  and  cannot  withhold  sur- 
prise that  even  the  Constitution  of.  New  Japan 
maintains  the  "exploded  religious  fiction"  of  the 
foundation  of  the  empire,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
the  Imperial  family  of  Japan  has  formed  the  oldest 

1  See  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol  xri.  pp.  39-76. 


94    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

continuous  dynasty  in  the  world,  and  can  probably 
boast  an  "  unbroken  line "  of  eighteen  or  twenty 
centuries. 

1.  ^'Divine  Ages,^^ 

2.  Prehistoric  Period  [660  B.  C.-400  (?)  A.  D.]. 

Dr.  Murray,  in  "  The  Story  of  Japan, "  following 
the  illustrious  example  of  Arnold  in  Roman  history, 
treats  these  more  or  less  mythological  periods  in 
a  reasonable  way.  He  says:  "Yet  the  events  of 
the  earlier  period[s]  ...  are  capable,  with  due  care 
and  inspection,  of  furnishing  important  lessons  and 
disclosing  many  facts  in  regard  to  the  lives  and 
(Aiaracteristics  of  the  primitive  Japanese."  These 
facts  concerning  the  native  elements  of  civilization 
pertain  to  the  mode  of  government,  which  was 
feudal;  to  food,  clothing,  houses,  arms,  and  imple- 
ments; to  plants  and  domestic  and  wild  animals;  to 
modes  of  travel ;  to  reading  and  writing,  as  being  un- 
known; to  various  manners  and  customs;  to  super- 
stitions; and  to  "religious  notions,"  which  found 
expression  in  Shinto,  itself  not  strictly  a  "religion," 
but  only  a  cult  without  a  moral  code.  "Morals 
were  invented  by  the  Chinese  because  they  were  an 
immoral  people ;  but  in  Japan  there  was  no  necessity 
for  any  system  of  morals,  as  every  Japanese  acted 
rightly  if  he  only  consulted  his  own  heart"!  So 
asserts  a  Shinto  apologist.  And  from  the  fact  that 
so  many  myths  cluster  around  Izumo,  it  is  a  natural 
inference  that  one  migration  of  the  ancestors  of  the 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAN)  95 

Japanese  from  Korea  landed  in  that  province,  while 
the  legends  relating  to  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  the  first 
male  and  female  deities,  since  they  find  local  habita- 
tion in  Kytishiu,  seem  to  indicate  another  migration 
(Korean  or  Malay?)  to  that  locality.  These  differ- 
ent migrations  are  also  supposed  to  account  for  the 
two  distinct  types  of  Japanese. 

The  story  of  the  creation  of  the  world  bears  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  related  in  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphoses; and  this  is  only  one  of  many  points  of 
remarkable  similarity  between  the  mythology  of  Japan 
and  the  Grseco-Roman  mythology.^  And  one  famous 
incident  in  the  career  of  the  Sun-Goddess  is  evi- 
dently a  myth  of  a  solar  eclipse. 

Although  the  Emperor  Jimmu  cannot  be  accepted 
as  a  truly  historical  personage,  neither  can  he  be 
entirely  ignored,  for  he  is  still  an  important  "  char- 
acter" in  Japanese  "history"  and  continues  to  claim 
in  his  honor  two  national  holidays  (February  11  and 
April  3).  And,  just  as  Jimmu  may  be  considered 
the  Cyrus,  or  founder,  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  so 
Sujin,  "the  Civilizer,"  may  be  called  its  Darius,  or 
organizer.  The  Prince  Yamato-Dake  is  a  popular 
hero,  whose  wonderful  exploits  are  still  sung  in  prose 
and  poetry.  As  for  the  Empress  Jingu,  or  Jingo, 
although  she  is  not  included  in  the  official  list^  of 

1  There  are,  indeed,  many  striking  resemblances  between  "  things 
Japanese  "  of  yarious  kinds  and  the  corresponding  "  things  Graeco- 
Roman."  See  "  Japanesque  Elements  in  '  The  Last  Days  of  Pom- 
peii ' "  in  the  "  Arena  "  for  October,  1896. 

2  See  Appendix,  where  will  also  be  found  a  list  of  the  year- 
p»riods,  or  eras. 


96    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

the  rulers  of  the  empire,  she  is  considered  a  great 
heroine,  and  is  especially  famous  for  her  successful 
invasion  of  Korea,  assigned  to  about  200  A.  d.  And 
it  is  her  son,  Ojin,  who,  deified  as  Hachiman,  is  still 
"  worshipped  "  as  god  of  war ;  while  Take-no-uchi  is 
renowned  for  having  served  as  Prime  Minister  to 
five  Emperors  and  one  Empress  (Jingu).  It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  Chinese  language  and 
literature,  together  with  the  art  of  writing,  were  in- 
troduced into  Japan  through  Korea. 

3.  Imperialistic  Period  [400(?)-888  A.  D.]. 

The  continental  influences  form  an  important  fac- 
tor in  the  equation  of  Japanese  civilization.  The 
Japanese  "have  been  from  the  beginning  of  their 
history  a  receptive  people,"  and  are  indebted  to 
Korea  and  China  for  the  beginnings  of  language, 
literature,  education,  art,  mental  and  moral  philoso- 
phy (Confucianism),  religion  (Buddhism),  and  many 
social  ideas.  The  conversion  of  the  nation  to  Bud- 
dhism took  place  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries, 
and  was  largely  due  to  the  powerful  influence  of  the 
Prime  Minister  of  the  Empress  Suiko.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  posthumous  title  of  Shotoku  Taishi, 
and  is  also  famous  for  having  compiled  "the  first 
written  law[s]  in  Japan." 

For  a  long  period,  on  account  of  superstitions,  the 
capital  was  frequently  removed,  so  that  Japan  is  said 
to  have  had  "no  less  than  sixty  capitals."  But  dur- 
ing most  of  the  eighth  century  the  court  was  located 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAN)  97 

at  Nara,  which  gave  its  name  to  that  epoch ;  and  in 
794  A.  D.  the  capital  was  permanently  established  at 
Kyoto. 

At  first  the  government  of  Japan  was  an  absolute 
monarchy,  not  only  in  name,  but  also  in  fact;  for 
the  authority  of  the  Emperor  was  recognized  and 
maintained,  comparatively  unimpaired,  throughout 
the  realm.  But  the  decay  of  the  Imperial  power 
began  quite  early  in  "the  Middle  Ages  of  Japan," 
as  Dr.  Murray  calls  the  period  from  about  700  to 
1184  A.  D.  The  Emperors  themselves,  wearied  with 
the  restrained  and  dignified  life  which,  as  "  descend- 
ants of  the  gods,"  they  were  obliged  by  etiquette  to 
endure,  preferred  to  abdicate;  and  in  retirement 
"often  wielded  a  greater  influence  and  exerted  a 
more  active  part  in  the  administration  of  affairs." 
This  practice  of  abdication  frequently  brought  a 
youth,  or  even  an  infant,  to  the  throne,  and  naturally 
transferred  the  real  power  to  the  subordinate  admin- 
istrative officers.  This  was  the  way  in  which  gra- 
datim  the  "duarchy,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was 
developed,  and  in  which  seriatim  families  and  even 
individuals  became  prominent. 

4.   Civil  Strife  [888-1603  A.  D.]. 

Although  actual  warfare  did  not  begin  for  a  long 
period,  the  date  of  the  appointment  of  a  Fujiwara  as 
Regent  practically  ended  Imperialism  and  was  the 
beginning  of  jealousy  and  strife.  And  yet  the  Fuji- 
wara Epoch  was  the  "  Elizabethan  Age  "  of  classical 

7 


^8    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

literature.  But  after  that  family  had  for  about  400 
years  "monopolized  nearly  all  the  important  ofiQces 
in  the  government,"  and  from  888  had  held  the 
regency  in  hereditary  tenure,  it  was  finally  deposed 
by  the  so-called  "military  families." 

The  first  of  these  was  the  Taira,  who,  after  only 
a  short  period  of  power  (1156-1185)  through  Kiyo- 
mori,  were  utterly  overthrown  in  the  "  wars  of  the 
red  and  white  flags,"  and  practically  annihilated  in 
the  great  naval  battle  of  Dan-no-ura.  Next  came 
the  Minamoto,  represented  by  Yoritomo,^  whose  au- 
thority was  further  enhanced  when  the  Emperor 
bestowed  on  him  the  highest  military  title,  Sei-i- 
Tai-Shogun.  And  from  this  time  (1192)  till  1868 
the  emperors  were  practical  nonentities,  and  subor- 
dinates actually  governed  the  empire.  The  Japan- 
ese Merovingians,  however,  were  never  deprived  of 
their  titular  honor  by  their  "Mayors  of  the  Palace." 

But  the  successors  of  Yoritomo  in  the  office  of 
Shogun  were  young  and  sensual,  and  gladly  relin- 
quished the  executive  duties  to  their  guardians  of 
the  Hojo  family,  who,  as  regents,  ruled  "with 
resistless  authority"  and  "unexampled  cruelty  and 
rapacity,"  but  yet  deserve  credit  for  defeating  (in 
1281)  an  invading  force  of  Tartars  sent  by  Kublai 
Khan.  The  great  patriots,  Kusunoki  and  Nitta, 
with  the  aid  of  Ashikaga,  finally  overthrew  the  Hojo 
domination  in  1333 ;  but  the  Ashikaga  rule  succeeded 
and  continued  till  1573. 

1  His  younger  brother,  Yoshitsune,  was  a  popular  hero. 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAN)  99 

During  the  fourteenth  century  occurred  the  Japan- 
ese "  War  of  the  Roses,"  or  the  "War  of  the  Chrysan- 
themums," which  was  a  conflict  between  two  rival 
branches  of  the  Imperial  family.  It  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  "Southern  Court"  by  the  "Northern 
Court,"  and  the  reunion  of  the  Imperial  authority  in 
the  person  of  the  Emperor  Komatsu  II.  It  was  an 
Ashikaga  Shogun  who  encouraged  the  quaint  tea- 
ceremonial,  called  cha-no-yu  ;  it  was  the  same  family 
who  fostered  fine  arts,  especially  painting  and  archi- 
tecture; it  was  an  Ashikaga  who  paid  tribute  to 
China;  it  was  "in  almost  the  worst  period  of  the 
Ashikaga  anarchy"  that,  in  1542,  "the  Portuguese 
made  their  first  appearance  in  Japan";  and  it  was 
only  seven  years  later  when  Francis  Xavier  arrived 
there  to  begin  his  missionary  labors,  from  which 
Christianity  spread  rapidly,  until  the  converts  were 
numbered  by  the  millions.  ^ 

The  next  few  decades  of  Japanese  history  are 
crowded  with  civil  strife,  and  include  the  three 
great  men,  Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi,  and  lyeyasu,  ^ 
each  of  whom  in  turn  seized  the  supreme  power. 
The  first-named  persecuted  Buddhism  and  was  favor- 
able to  Christianity;  the  other  two  interdicted  the 
latter.  Hideyoshi,  who  "rose  from  obscurity  solely 
by  his  own  talents, "  has  been  called  "  the  Napoleon 
of  Japan."  He  is  generally  known  by  his  title  of 
Taiko;  and  he  extended  his  name  abroad  by  an  in- 
vasion of  Korea,  which  was  not,  however,  a  complete 

1  See  "  The  Religions  of  Japan  "  (Griffis),  chap.  xi. 


100   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

success.  He  is  regarded  by  many  as  "the  greatest 
soldier,  if  not  the  greatest  man,  whom  Japan  has 
produced."  If  this  statement  can  be  successfully 
challenged,  the  palm  will  certainly  be  awarded  to 
lyeyasu,  who,  by  the  victory  of  Sekigahara  in  1600, 
became  the  virtual  ruler  of  the  empire. 

5.   Tokugawa  Feudalism  [1603-1868  A.  D.]. 

lyeyasu  founded  a  dynasty  (Tokugawa)  of  Shoguns, 
who,  for  more  than  260  years,  ruled  at  Yedo,  sur- 
rounded by  faithful  vassals,  and  who  at  least  gave 
the  empire  a  long  period  of  peace.  He  brought 
Japanese  feudalism  to  its  perfection  of  organization. 
His  successors  destroyed  Christianity  by  means  of 
a  fearful  persecution;  prohibited  commercial  inter- 
course, except  with  the  Chinese  and  the  Dutch,  ^ 
and  allowed  it  with  these  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  thus  crystallized  Japanese  civilization  and  in- 
stitutions. It  may  be  true  that  "  Japan  reached  the 
acme  of  her  ancient  greatness  during  the  Tokugawa 
Dynasty  " ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  by  this  policy  of 
insulation  and  seclusion  she  was  put  back  two  and  a 
half  centuries  in  the  matter  of  progress  in  civilization. 

The  long  years  of  peace  under  the  Tokugawas 
were  also  years  of  literary  development.  Chinese 
history,  literature,  and  philosophy  were  ardently 
studied;  Confucianism  wielded  a  mighty  influence; 
but  Japanese  history  and  literature  were  not  neg- 
lected.    The  Mito  clan  especially  was  the  centre  of 

1  Previously  Portuguese,  English,  and  others  had  enjoyed  the 
priyilege. 


HISTORY  (OLD  JAPAIST)  101 1 

intellectual  industry,  and  produced,  among  a  large 
number  of  works,  the  Dai  Nihon  Shi  (History  of 
Great  Japan),  which  is  even  to-day  the  standard. 
The  study  of  Japanese  history  revealed  the  fact  that 
the  governmental  authority  had  been  originally  cen- 
tred in  the  Emperor,  and  not  divided  with  any  subor- 
dinate ;  and  the  study  of  Confucian  political  science 
led  to  the  same  idea  of  an  absolute  monarchy. 
Thus  the  spirit  of  Imperialism  grew,  encouraged, 
perhaps,  by  clan  jealousies  and  fostered  by  anti- 
foreign  opinions,  until  "  the  last  of  the  Shoguns " 
resigned  his  position,  and  the  Emperor  was  restored 
to  his  original  sole  authority.  Then  the  leaders  of 
the  Restoration  abandoned  their  anti-foreign  slogan, 
which  had  been  only  a  pretext,  and  by  a  complete 
but  wise  volte -face^  began  to  turn  their  country  into 
the  path  of  modern  civilization,  to  make  up  for  the 
lost  centuries.  But  the  story  of  this  wonderful  trans- 
formation belongs  to  the  next  chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

« 
Griffis,  in  his  "Japan  in  History,  Folk-lore,  and  Art,** 
gives  interesting  glimpses  of  Japanese  history  ;  and  many  other 
works  on  Japan  present  a  brief  treatment  of  this  subject. 
Clement's  Hildreth's  "Japan  as  it  Was  and  Is"  is  especially 
valuable  for  the  period  of  seclusion.  Knapp's  "  Feudal  and 
Modern  Japan"  is  instructive  in  its  contrasts.  The  Transac- 
tions of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  abound  in  valuable  ma- 
terial. For  a  single  volume  on  this  subject,  Murray's  "  Japan  " 
in  the  series  of  "The  Stories  of  the  Nations"  or  Longford's 
"Story  of  Old  Japan"  is  the  best.  Murdoch's  "History  of 
Japan"  in  three  volumes,  of  which  two  have  been  published,  is 
the  most  authoritative. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HISTORY   (NEW  JAPAN) 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Birth  of  New  Japan.  —  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury Japan  ;  calendars ;  six  periods  :  (I)  Period  of  Seclusion,  chro- 
nology and  description ;  (II)  Period  of  Treaty-making,  chronology 
and  description ;  (III)  Period  of  Civil  Commotions,  chronology  and 
description;  (IV)  Period  of  Reconstruction,  chronology  and  de- 
scription, especially  the  "  Charter  Oath  " ;  (V)  Period  of  Internal 
Derelopment,  chronology  and  description ;  (VI)  Period  of  Consti- 
tutional Government,  chronology  and  description ;  summary  of 
general  progress.  —  Bibliography. 

JULY  14,  1853,  was  the  birthday  of  New  Japan. 
It  was  the  day  when  Commodore  Perry  and  his 
suite  first  landed  on  the  shore  of  Yedo  Bay  at 
Kurihama,  near  Uraga,  and  when  Japanese  author- 
ities received,  in  contravention  of  their  own  laws,  an 
official  communication  from  Millard  Fillmore,  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

It  may  be  true  that,  even  if  Perry  had  not  come, 
Japan  would  have  been  eventually  opened,  because 
internal  public  opinion  was  shaping  itself  against  the 
policy  of  seclusion ;  but  we  care  little  for  what  "  might 
have  been."  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  Perry  did  not 
fully  carry  out  the  purpose  of  his  expedition  until  the 
following  year,  when  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  friend- 
ship ;  but  the  reception  of  the  President's  letter  was 
the  crucial  point ;  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  end  of 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  103 

old  Japan.  The  rest  followed  in  due  course  of  time. 
When  Japanese  authorities  broke  their  own  laws, 
the  downfall  of  the  old  system  was  inevitable.  Mark 
those  words  in  the  receipt  —  "in  opposition  to  the 
Japanese  law."  That  was  a  clear  confession  that  the 
old  policy  of  seclusion  and  its  prohibitions  could  no 
longer  be  strictly  maintained.  A  precedent  was  thus 
established,  of  which  other  nations  were  not  at  all 
slow  to  avail  themselves. 

But  although  New  Japan  was  not  born  until  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  suits  the 
purpose  of  this  book  a  little  better,  even  at  the  ex- 
pense of  possible  repetition,  to  take  a  survey  in  this 
chapter  of  that  entire  century,  in  order  that  the  real 
progress  of  Japan  may  thereby  be  more  clearly  re- 
vealed in  all  its  marvellous  strides. 

Of  course,  the  employment  of  the  Gregorian  calen- 
dar in  Japan  is  of  comparatively  recent  occurrence,  so 
that  it  would  be  quite  proper  to  divide  up  the  century 
according  to  the  old  Japanese  custom  of  periods,  or 
eras,^  of  varying  length.  This  system  was  introduced 
from  China  and  has  prevailed  since  645  A.  d.  A  new 
era  was  always  chosen  "  whenever  it  was  deemed 
necessary  to  commemorate  an  auspicious  or  ward  off  a 
malign  event."  It  is  interesting,  by  the  way,  to  notice 
that,  immediately  after  Commodore  Perry's  arrival 
(1853),  the  name  of  the  period  was  changed  for  a 
good  omen!  Hereafter  these  eras  will  correspond 
with  the  reigns  of  the  emperors. 

1  For  lists  of  eras  and  emperors,  see  Appendix. 


104   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

But  it  is  really  more  intelligible  to  divide  the  his- 
tory of  the  century  into  six  periods  of  well-determined 
duration.  Each  one  of  these  periods,  moreover,  may 
be  accurately  named  in  accord  with  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  that  period.  It  must,  however,  be 
clearly  understood  that  these  distinctions  are  not  all 
absolute,  but  rather  relative.  It  is  also  possible,  with- 
out an  undue  stretch  of  the  imagination,  to  trace,  in 
the  order  of  the  periods,  the  general  progress  that  has 
marked  the  history  of  New  Japan.  These  periods  are 
as  follows :  — 

I.  Seclusion  (1801-1853). 
II.  Treaty-making  (1854-1858). 

III.  Civil  Commotions  (1858-1868). 

IV.  Eeconstruction  (1868-1878). 

V.  Internal  Development  (1879-1889). 
VI.  Constitutional  Government  (1889-1900).' 

It  is  of  special  interest  for  Americans  to  notice  that 
the  third  and  fourth  periods  are  almost  contemporane- 
ous with  the  periods  of  Civil  War  and  Reconstruction 
in  the  United  States. 

We  now  take  up  each  period  in  detail. 

I.   Period  of  Seclusion  (1801-1853). 

CHRONOLOGY. 

1804.  Resanoff,  Russian  Embassy. 

1807.  The  "Eclipse"  of  Boston  at  Nagasaki. 

1808.  The  British  frigate  "  Phaethon  "  at  Nagasaki. 
1811-18l3.  Golownin's  captivity  in  Yezo. 

1818.  Captain  Gordon  (British)  in  Yedo  Bay. 

1  Or  [VII.  Cosraopolitanism  (1899-        )]. 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  105 

1825-1829.  Dr.  Von  Siebold  (Dutch)  in  Yedo. 

1827.  Beechey   (British)  in  "Blossom"    at    Loo  Choo 

Islands. 
1837.  The  "Morrison"  Expedition  in  Yedo  Bay. 

1844.  Letter  1  from  King  William  II.  of  Holland. 

1845.  American  whaler  "  Mercator  "  in  Yedo  Bay. 
British  frigate  "Saramang"  at  Nagasaki. 

1846.  Dr.  Bettelheim  in  Loo  Choo  Islands. 

Wreck  of  American  whaler  "  Lawrence  "  on  Kurile 

Islands. 
(United  States)  Commodore  Biddle^s  Expedition 

in  Yedo  Bay. 

1848.  Wreck  of  American  whaler   "Ladoga"  off  Mat- 

sumai,  Yezo. 
Ronald  McDonald  landed  in  Japan. 

1849.  United  States  "  Preble  "  in  Nagasaki  harbor. 
British  "  Mariner  "  in  Yedo  Bay. 

1853.  Shogun  lyeyoshi  died. 

Commodore  Perry  in  Yedo  Bay. 

It  needs  only  a  few  words  to  summarize  this  period 
which  includes  the  final  days  of  the  two-edged  policy 
of  exclusion  and  inclusion,  which  forbade  not  only 
foreigners  to  enter,  but  also  Japanese  to  leave,  the 
country.  It  would  not  even  allow  Japanese  ship- 
wrecked on  other  shores  to  be  brought  back  to  their 
native  land,  as  several  futile  attempts  mentioned 
above  attest.  Nagasaki  was  the  only  place  where  for- 
eign trade  was  allowed,  and  there  only  in  a  slight 
degree  with  Chinese  and  Dutch.  The  events  of  this 
period  are  almost  all  vain  attempts  to  open  Japan. 
Two  important  events  concern  the  Loo  Choo  Islands, 

1  Recommending  to  open  Japan  to  foreign  intercourse. 


106   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

then  independent,  and  later  visited  also  by  Commo- 
dore Perry  on  his  way  from  China  to  Japan.  Ronald 
McDonald  was  an  Oregon  boy,  who,  '*  voluntarily 
left  adrift,  got  into  Yezo,  and  thence  to  Nagasaki." 
He  is  reported  to  have  puzzled  the  Japanese  author- 
ities by  stating  that  in  America  "  the  people  are  king 
and  the  source  of  authority  "  I  This  period  of  seclu- 
sion came  to  an  end  on  July  14,  1853,  when  the 
Japanese,  contrary  to  their  own  laws,  received  from 
Commodore  Perry  the  letter  from  President  Fillmore 
to  the  Emperor  of  Japan. ^ 

II.    Feriod  of  Treaty-Making  (1854-1858). 

CHRONOLOGY. 

1864.  Perry^s  treaty  of  peace  and  amity. 

British  treaty  of  peace  and  amity. 
1855.  Russian  treaty  of  peace  and  amity. 

Terrible  earthquake. 
1866.  Fire  in  Yedo  ;  100,000  lives  lost. 

Dutch  treaty  of  peace  and  amity. 

Townsend  Harris,  United  States  Consul,  arrived. 
1857.  Harris  in  audience  with  the  Shogun. 
1868.  Harris  treaty  of  trade  and  commerce. 

Elgin  treaty  of  trade  and  commerce. 

1  The  following  is  what  the  Japanese  themselves  stated  about 
this  event :  "  The  letter  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  and  copy,  are  hereby  received  and  delivered  to  the 
Emperor.  Many  times  it  has  been  communicated  that  business 
relating  to  foreign  countries  cannot  be  transacted  here  at  Uraga, 
but  in  Nagasaki.  Now,  it  has  been  observed  that  the  Admiral,  in 
his  quality  of  ambassador  of  the  President,  would  be  insulted  by 
it ;  the  justice  of  this  has  been  acknowledged ;  consequently,  the 
above-mentioned  letter  is  hereby  received,  in  opposition  to  the 
Japanese  law." 


PERRY    MONUMENT,   NEAR    bhRAGA 


I 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  107 

This  is  the  era  which  was  opened  by  Commodore 
Perry,  and  was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  per- 
severing attempts  of  Perry,  Harris,  Curtius,  Lord 
Elgin,  and  others  to  negotiate  treaties,  first  of  friend- 
ship and  amity,  and  afterwards  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, with  Japan.  It  is  rather  interesting  that  the 
only  events  chronicled  above,  besides  treaty-making, 
are  terrible  catastrophes,  which  the  superstitious  con- 
servatives believed  to  have  been  visited  upon  their 
country  as  a  punishment  for  treating  with  the  bar- 
barians !  It  is  again  a  matter  of  peculiar  pride  to 
Americans  that  the  first  treaty  of  friendship  and 
amity  was  negotiated  by  Perry  ;  that  the  first  foreign 
flag  raised  officially  in  Japan  was  the  Stars  and  Stripes, 
hoisted  at  Shimoda  by  Harris  on  September  4, 1856 ; 
that  Harris  was  the  first  accredited  diplomatic  agent 
from  a  foreign  country  to  Japan ;  that  he  also  had  the 
honor  of  the  first  audience  of  a  foreign  representa- 
tive with  the  Shogun,  then  supposed  to  be  the 
Emperor ;  and  that  he  negotiated  the  first  treaty  of 
trade  and  commerce. 

III.   Period  of  Civil  Commotions  (1868-1868). 

CHRONOLOGY. 

1859.  Yokohama,  Nagasaki,  Hakodate  opened. 
First  Christian  missionaries. 

1860.  Assassination  of  li,  Prime  Minister  of  the  Shogun. 

1861.  Frequent   attacks  on  foreigners. 

1862.  First  foreign  embassy.     Richardson  affair 

1863.  Bombardment  of  Kagoshima. 

1864.  Bombardment  of  Shimonoseki. 


108    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

1865.  Imperial  sanction  of  treaties.     Tariff  convention. 

1866.  Shogun  lyemochi  died;  succeeded  by  Keiki. 

1867.  Emperor  Komei  died  ;  succeeded  by  Mutsuhito. 
Keiki  resigned.     Reorganization  of  the  Govern- 

mcDt. 

1868.  Restoration,  or  Revolution. 

This  era  has  been  so  named  because  it  was  marked 
by  commotions,  not  merely  between  different  factions 
among  the  Japanese,  but  also  between  Japanese  and 
foreigners.  The  anti-foreign  spirit  that  manifested 
itself  in  numerous  assaults  and  conspiracies  was  so 
involved  with  internal  dissensions  that  it  is  quite 
difficult  to  distinguish  them.  The  assassination  of 
li,  the  Shogun's  Prime  Minister,  who  had  the  courage 
and  the  foresight  to  sign  the  treaties,  was  the  natural 
sequence  of  the  opening  of  three  ports  to  foreign  com- 
merce. The  conservative  spirit,  moreover,  was  still 
so  strong  that  the  Shogun  had  to  send  an  embassy, 
the  first  one  ever  sent  abroad  officially  by  Japan,  to 
petition  the  treaty-powers  to  permit  the  postpone- 
ment of  the  opening  of  other  ports.  The  murder  of 
Richardson,  an  Englishman  who  rudely  interrupted 
the  progress  of  the  retinue  of  the  Prince  of  Satsuma, 
was  the  pretext  for  the  bombardment  of  Kagoshima  ; 
and  the  firing  on  an  American  vessel  that  was  passing 
through  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki  was  the  excuse 
for  the  bombardment  of  Shimonoseki.  About  the 
middle  of  this  period  the  Imperial  sanction  of  the 
treaties  was  obtained,  and  a  tariff  convention  was 
negotiated. 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  109 

The  civil  dissensions,  however,  continued ;  the 
great  clan  of  Choshiu  became  engaged  in  actual  war- 
fare against  the  Shogun's  troops  in  Kyoto  and  were 
proclaimed  "  rebels,"  against  whom  an  Imperial  army- 
was  despatched;  the  young  Shogun,  lyemochi,  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  Keiki;  and  the  Emperor 
Komei  also  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  young  son, 
Mutsuhito,  the  present  Emperor.  Finally,  the  new 
Shogun,  observing  the  drift  of  political  affairs  and 
the  need  of  the  times  for  a  more  centralized  and 
unified  administration,  resigned  his  position ;  and  the 
system  of  government  was  re-formed  with  the  Emperor 
in  direct  control.  The  new  Emperor  declared  in  a 
manifesto :  "  Henceforward  we  shall  exercise  supreme 
authority,  both  in  the  internal  and  [the]  external 
affairs  of  the  country.  Consequently  the  title  of 
Emperor  should  be  substituted  for  that  of  Tycoon 
[Shogun],  which  has  hitherto  been  employed  in  the 
treaties."  Of  this  manifesto,  one  writer  says :  ''  Ap- 
pended were  the  seal  of  Dai  Nippon,  and  the  signa- 
ture, Mutsuhito,  this  being  the  first  occasion  in 
Japanese  history  on  which  the  name  of  an  Emperor 
had  appeared  during  his  lifetime."  ^ 

But  the  effect  of  the  reorganization  of  the  gov- 
ernment seemed  to  the  adherents  of  the  former 
Shogun  to  work  so  much  injustice  to  them  that  they 
rose  in  arms  against  the  Sat-Cho  [Satsuma-Choshiu] 
combination  which  was  then  influential  at  court. 
This  led,  in  1867,  to  a  civil  war,  which,  after  a  severe 

1  Dixon's  "  Land  of  the  Morning,"  p.  97. 


110   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

struggle,  culminated  in  1868  in  the  complete  triumph 
of  the  Imperialists.  This  event  is  what  is  called  by 
some  "  the  Restoration,"  and  by  others  "  the  Revolu- 
tion." This  was,  in  fact,  the  climax  of  all  the  civil 
commotions  of  the  period;  the  anti-foreign  spirit 
and  policy  were  only  secondary  to  the  prime  purpose 
of  overthrowing  the  usurpation  of  the  Tokugawa 
Shogunate  and  restoring  the  one  legal  Emperor  to 
his  lawful  authority.  And  thus  fell,  not  only  the 
Tokugawa  Dynasty,  as  had  fallen  other  dynasties,  of 
Shoguns,  but  also  the  whole  system  of  a  Shogunate  ; 
and  thus  the  Emperor  of  Japan  became,  not  ruler  in 
name  and  fame  only,  but  sovereign  in  act  and  fact. 
From  1868  to  the  middle  of  1912  Mutsuhito  was 
Emperor  both  de  jure  and  de  facto. 

IV.    Period  of  Reconstruction  (1868-1878). 

CHRONOLOGY. 

1868.  Opening  of  Hyogo  (Kobe)  and  Osaka. 
Emperor's  audience  of  foreign  ministers. 
Yedo  named  Tokyo  and  made  capital. 

1869.  Opening  of  Yedo  and  Niigata. 
The  "  Charter  Oath  "  of  Japan. 

1870.  Light-houses,  telegraphs. 

1871.  Postal  system,  mint,  and  dock. 
Feudalism  abolished. 

Eta  and  hinin  (outcasts)  admitted  to  citizenship. 
Colonization  in  Yezo  [Hokkaido]. 

1872.  First  railway,  newspaper,  church,  and  Missionary 

Conference. 
Imperial  University  in  Tokyo. 
Iwakura  Embassy  to  America  and  Europe. 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  111 

1873.  Adoption  of  Gregorian  calendar. 
Removal  of  anti-Christian  edicts. 
Empress  gave  audience  to  foreign  ladies. 

1874.  Saga  Rebellion.     Formosan  Expedition. 

1875.  Assembly  of  Governors.     Senate. 
Sakhalin  traded  off  for  Kurile  Islands. 

1876.  Treaty  with  Korea. 

1877.  Satsuma  Rebellion. 

First  National  Exhibition  in  Tokyo. 

1878.  Bimetallism. 

Promise  to  establish  Prefectural  Assemblies. 

This  period  was  one  of  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
New  Japan,  to  be  constructed  out  of  the  old,  and  was 
one  of  such  kaleidoscopic  changes  and  marvellous 
transformations  in  society,  business,  and  administra- 
tion that  it  is  almost  blinding  to  the  eye  to  attempt 
to  watch  the  work  of  reconstruction.  There  were 
abortive  but  costly  attempts,  like  the  Saga  and  the 
Satsuma  rebellions,  to  check  the  progressive  policy. 
It  was  the  great  period  of  "  firsts,"  of  beginnings : 
the  first  audiences  of  foreign  ministers  by  the  Em- 
peror and  of  foreign  ladies  by  the  Empress ;  the  first 
telegraph,  mint,  dock,  railroad,  postal  system,  news- 
paper, exhibition,  church,  etc. ;  an  assembly  of  pro- 
vincial governors  to  confer  together  upon  general 
policy,  and  a  Senate. 

The  "Charter  Oath"  of  Japan  was  not  obtained 
by  coercion,  but  voluntarily  taken:  it  is  such  an 
important  document  that  at  legist  a  summary  may 
be  given  :^  — 

1  lyenaga's  "  Constitutional  Development  of  Japan,"  p.  33. 


112    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

"1.  A  deliberative  assembly  should  be  formed,  and  all 
measures  be  decided  by  public  opinion. 

"  2.  The  principles  of  social  and  political  economics 
should  be  diligently  studied  by  both  the  superior  and 
[the]  inferior  classes  of  our  people. 

"  3.  Every  one  in  the  community  shall  be  assisted 
to  persevere  in  carrying  out  his  will  for  all  good 
purposes. 

"  4.  All  the  old  absurd  usages  of  former  times  should 
be  disregarded,  and  the  impartiality  and  justice  dis- 
played in  the  workings  of  nature  be  adopted  as  a  basis 
of  action. 

"  6.  Wisdom  and  ability  should  be  sought  after  in  all 
quarters  of  the  world  for  the  purpose  of  firmly  establish- 
ing the  foundations  of  the  empire.'* 

Two  years  later  feudalism  was  abolished  by  the 
following  laconic  decree :  "  The  clans  are  abolished, 
and  prefectures  are  established  in  their  places."  In 
the  same  year  the  outcast  eta  and  hi-nin  (not- 
human)  were  recognized  as  common  people.  Then 
followed  the  despatch  of  the  Iwakura  Embassy  to 
America  and  Europe,  where,  although  they  failed  in 
their  prime  purpose  of  securing  a  revision  of  the 
treaties  on  more  nearly  equal  terms,  they  learned 
most  valuable  lessons.  Two  immediate  results  thereof 
were  seen  in  the  removal  of  the  anti-Christian  edicts 
and  the  adoption  of  the  Gregorian,  or  Christian,  cal- 
endar. And  finally  came  the  promise  to  establish 
prefectural  assemblies  as  training  schools  in  local  self- 
government. 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  113 

v.  Period  of  Internal  Development  (1879-1889) . 

CHRONOLOGY. 

1879.  Annexation  of  the  Loo  Choo  Islands. 
Visit  of  General  U.  S.  Grant. 

1880.  Promulgation  of  Penal  Code  and  Code  of  Criminal 

Procedure. 
Establishment  of  prefectural  assemblies. 

1881.  Announcement  of  Constitutional  Government. 

1882.  Organization  of  political  parties. 
Bank  of  Japan  {Nippon  Ginko). 

1883.  Missionary  Conference,  Osaka. 

1884.  New  orders  of  nobility  in  European  fashion. 
English  introduced  into  school  curricula. 

1885.  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company  {Nippon   Yusen 

Kwaisha). 
Cabinet  reconstruction,   known  as    "  The    Great 
Earthquake'^  (political). 

1886.  Dissatisfaction  of  Radicals. 

1887.  "Peace  Preservation  Act." 

1888.  Establishment  of  Privy  Council. 
Eruption  of  Mount  Bandai. 

1889.  Promulgation  of  the  Constitution  (February  11) . 
Establishment  of  local  self-government. 
Prince  Haru  proclaimed  Crown  Prince. 

This  period  is  not  marked,  perhaps,  by  so  many 
unusual  events  as  the  preceding  one ;  but  it  was  a 
period  of  rapid,  though  somewhat  quiet,  internal 
development.  We  note  in  financial  affairs  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Bank  of  Japan,  which  has  ever 
since  been  a  most  important  agent  in  maintaining 
an   economic   equilibrium;    in  business   circles    the 

8 


114   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

organization  of  the  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company, 
which  has  been  instrumental  in  expanding  Japanese 
trade  and  commerce ;  in  society  the  reorganization 
of  the  nobility;  and  in  legal  matters  the  promulga- 
tion of  new  codes.  Several  political  events  are  noted 
in  the  chronology ;  but  they  were  mostly  preparatory 
to  the  next  period.  The  promise  to  establish  prefec- 
tural  assemblies  was  fulfilled,  and  these  became  pre- 
paratory schools  in  political  science ;  and  another 
promise,  that  of  a  constitution,  was  made.  The  Cabi- 
net was  reconstructed,  and  political  parties  were 
organized.  The  Radicals,  however,  became  dissatis- 
fied with  the  slowness  of  political  progress,  and  made 
such  an  agitation  that,  in  1887,  many  were  expelled 
from  Tokyo  by  the  so-called  "  Peace  Preservation 
Act,"  and  those  who  refused  to  obey  were  im- 
prisoned. But  finally,  in  1889,  as  the  climax  of 
the  internal  development  and  political  preparations, 
came  the  establishment  of  local  self-government  and 
the  promulgation  of  the  Constitution,  which  ushered 
in  the  next  period. 

VI.  Period  of  Constitutional  Government  (1889-1900). 

CHRONOLOaT. 

1889.  Anti-foreign  reaction. 

1890.  First  National  Election.     First  Imperial  Diet. 
Promulgation  of  Civil  and  Commercial  Codes. 

1891.  Attack  on  the  Czarowitz,  now  Emperor  of  Russia. 
Gifu  earthquake. 

1892.  Dispute  between  the  two  Houses  of  Diet. 

1893.  Dispute  between  the  Diet  and  the  Government. 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  115 

1894.  War  with  China. 

1895.  War  with  China.     Acquisition  of  Formosa. 

1896.  Alliance  between  the  Government  and  Liberals. 
Tidal  wave  on  northeastern  coast  of  main  island. 

1897.  Revised  tariff.     Gold  standard. 
Freedom  of  press  and  public  meeting. 

1898.  Revised  Civil  Code.     First  "  Party  Cabinet." 

1899.  New  treaties  on  terms  of  equality  —  Japan  wide 

open. 

1900.  Wedding  of  Crown  Prince  Haru. 
Extension  of  electoral  franchise. 

War  with  China — Japan  allied  with  Christendom. 
General  Missionary  Conference,  Tokyo. 

This  period  included  wars  and  other  calamities,  but 
also  some  very  fortunate  events.  It  opened,  strange 
to  say,  with  the  "  anti-foreign  reaction  "  at  its  height. 
This  reaction  was  the  natural  result  of  the  rapid 
Occidentalizing  that  had  been  going  on,  and  was 
strengthened  by  the  refusal  of  Western  nations  to 
revise  the  treaties  which  kept  Japan  in  thraldom. 
But  the  period  closed  with  "  treaty  revision  "  accom-* 
plished,  and  Japan  admitted,  on  terms  of  equality,  to 
alliance  with  Western  nations.^  And  in  quelling  the 
"Boxer"  disturbances  in  China  and  particularly  in 
raising  the  Siege  of  Peking,  Japan  played  a  most 
important  part.  This  period  was  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  experimental  stage  in  constitutional  gov- 
ernment, when  the  relations  between  the  two  Houses 
of  the  Diet,  between  the  Diet  and  the  Cabinet,  be- 
tween the  Cabinet  and  political  parties,  were  being 

1  See  Appendix  for  New  Treaty. 


116    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

defined.  This  was  also  the  period  during  which  new 
civil,  commercial,  and  criminal  codes  were  put  into 
operation;  the  gold  standard  was  adopted;  the  re- 
strictions on  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  public 
meeting  were  almost  entirely  removed ;  the  tariff  was 
revised  in  the  interests  of  Japan;  and  the  electoral 
franchise  in  elections  for  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  was  largely  extended. 

It  has  already  been  suggested  that  the  very  order 
of  these  periods  indicates  in  general  the  progress  of 
Japan  during  those  hundred  years.  The  century 
dawns,  nay,  even  the  second  half  of  the  century 
opens,  with  Japan  in  seclusion.  But  Commodore 
Perry  breaks  down  that  isolation ;  and  Japan  enters, 
first  merely  into  amity,  but  afterwards  into  commer- 
cial intercourse,  with  foreign  nations.  The  break 
up  of  the  old  foreign  policy  accelerates  the  break  up 
of  the  old  national  policy  of  government,  and  civil 
commotions  culminate  in  the  restoration  of  the  Em- 
peror to  his  lawful  authority.  Japan  is  theii  recon- 
structed on  new  lines;  and  a  tremendous  internal 
development  prepares  the  Japanese  to  be  admitted 
by  their  generous  Emperor  into  a  share  of  his  inher- 
ited prerogatives.  And  the  century  sets  with  Japan 
among  the  great  nations  of  Christendom,  and  with 
the  Japanese  enjoying  a  constitutional  government, 
representative  institutions,  local  self-government,  free- 
dom of  the  press  and  of  public  meeting,  and  reli- 
gious liberty.  If  this  is  the  record  of  Nineteenth 
Century  Japan,  what  of  Twentieth  Century  Japan? 


STATESMEN    OF   NEW    JAPAN 
PRINCE    SANJO   AND    COUNT   KATSU 


HISTORY  (NEW  JAPAN)  117 

It  certainly  has  a  good  start,  in  formal  alliance  with 
Great  Britain  to  maintain  peace  and  justice  in  the 
Far  East. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The  same  as  the  preceding  chapter,  with  the  addition  of 
"  The  Intercourse  between  the  United  States  and  Japan  '* 
(Nitobe);  "Matthew  Calbraith  Perry,"  "Townsend  Harris," 
and  "  Verbeck  of  Japan  "  (all  by  Grifl&s)  ;  "  Advance  Japan  " 
(Morris)  ;  and  Perry's  Expedition  (official  report). 

On  the  early  history  of  New  Japan  there  are  many  valuable 
works  by  Alcock,  Black,  Dickson,  Dixon  (W.  G.),  House, 
Lanman,  Mounsey,  Mossman,  and  others.  See  also  Satow's 
translation  of  "  Kinse  Shiriaku."  On  the  war  with  China 
(1894,  1895),  see  "Heroic  Japan"  (Eastlake  and  Yamada);  and 
on  the  lessons  and  results  of  that  war,  see  "The  New  Far 
East"  (Diosy).  "The  Awakening  of  Japan"  (Okakura), 
"The  White  Peril  in  the  Far  East"  (Gulick),  and  "Young 
Japan  "  (Scherer)  trace  thoughtfully  the  development  of  New 
Japan.  "Dai  Nippon"  (Dyer),  chaps,  ii.  andiv.,  may  be  read 
with  profit.  "  The  Progress  of  Japan,  1853-1871 "  (Gubbins), 
covers  thoroughly  part  of  this  period. 


CHAPTER  IX 
CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM 

Outline  of  Topics  :  The  "  Charter  Oath "  of  Japan ;  popular 
agitation;  promise  of  a  national  assembly;  a  red-letter  year;  the 
"  Magna  Charta  "  of  Japan ;  Imperial  prerogatives  ;  personality  of 
Emperor  and  Empress ;  Crown  Prince  and  Princess ;  Imperial 
grandchildren ;  Privy  Council ;  Imperial  Cabinet ;  Departments 
of  State ;  sundry  comments ;  House  of  Peers ;  House  of  Commons  ; 
some  "  firsts " ;  rights  and  duties  of  subjects ;  criticisms  of  Jap- 
anese politics;  popular  rights;  personnel  of  two  Houses;  cabinet 
responsibility ;  political  parties ;  persons  and  principles ;  constitu- 
tional system  satisfactory.  —  Bibliography, 

WHEN  the  Revolution,  or  Restoration,  of 
1868  ended  the  usurpation,  and  over- 
threw the  despotism  of  the  Shogun,  the 
joung  Emperor,  Mutsuhito,  restored  to  his  ancestral 
rights  as  the  actual  sole  ruler  of  the  empire,  took 
solemn  oath  that  "  a  deliberative  assembly  should  be 
formed ;  all  measures  be  decided  by  public  opinion ; 
the  uncivilized  customs  of  former  times  should  be 
broken  through ;  the  impartiality  and  justice  displayed 
in  the  workings  of  nature  be  adopted  as  a  basis  of 
action;  and  that  intellect  and  learning  should  be 
sought  for  throughout  the  world,  in  order  to  estab- 
lish the  foundations  of  the  empire."  In  that  same 
year  an  assembly  of  representatives  of  the  clans  was 
called  to  meet  in  the  capital,  and  was  given  the  title 


COlSrSTlTUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  119 

of  Shugi-in  (House  of  Commons).  It  consisted  of 
samurai  (knights)  from  each  clan ;  and  as  they  were 
appointed  by  each  daimyo  (prince),  the  body  was 
a  purely  feudal,  and  not  at  all  a  popular,  assembly. 
In  1871  feudalism  was  abolished,  and  later  a  senate 
was  established ;  but  that  was  an  advisory  body,  con- 
sisting of  officials  appointed  by  the  Emperor  and 
without  legislative  power.  In  1875  the  Emperor 
convoked  a  council  of  the  officers  of  the  provincial 
governments  with  a  purpose  stated  as  follows :  "  We 
also  call  a  couftcil  of  the  officials  of  our  provinces,  so 
that  the  feelings  of  the  people  may  be  made  known 
and  the  public  welfare  attained.  By  these  means  we 
shall  gradually  confer  upon  the  nation  a  constitu- 
tional form  of  government.  The  provincial  officials 
are  summoned  as  the  representatives  of  the  people 
in  the  various  provinces,  that  they  may  express  their 
opinion  on  behalf  of  the  people." 

But  a  body  so  constituted  and  rather  conservative 
could  not  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  new  age. 
Itagaki  (now  Count)  insisted  that  the  government 
should  "guarantee  the  establishment  of  a  popular 
assembly,"  and  organized  societies,  or  associations, 
for  popular  agitation  of  the  subject.  Petitions  and 
memorials  poured  in  upon  the  government,  within 
whose  circles  Okuma  (now  Count),  Minister  of 
Finance,  was  most  active  in  the  same  direction.  In 
the  mean  time  (1878)  provincial  assemblies,  the 
members  of  which  were  chosen  by  popular  election, 
had  been  established  as  a  preparatory  measure. 


120   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

It  was  on  October  12,  1881,  that  the  Emperor 
issued  his  memorable  proclamation  that  a  National 
Assembly  should  be  opened  in  1890.  That  procla- 
mation read  as  follows:  — 

"We  therefore  hereby  declare  that  we  shall,  in  the 
23rd  year  of  Meiji,  establish  a  Parliament,  in  order  to 
carry  into  full  effect  the  determination  we  have  an- 
nounced, and  we  charge  our  faithful  subjects  bearing 
our  commissions  to  make,  in  the  mean  time,  all  necessary 
preparations  to  that  end.  With  regard  to  the  limita- 
tions upon  the  Imperial  prerogative,  and  the  constitution 
of  the  Parliament,  we  shall  decide  hereafter,  and  shall 
make  proclamation  in  due  time." 

From  that  time  on  there  was  progress,  "  steadily, 
if  slowly,  in  the  direction  of  greater  decentraliza- 
tion and  broader  popular  prerogative.'* 

The  year  1889  was  a  red-letter  year  in  the  calendar 
of  Japan's  political  progress.  On  February  11  was 
promulgated  that  famous  document^  which  took 
Japan  forever  out  of  the  ranks  of  Oriental  despotisms 
and  placed  her  among  constitutional  monarchies; 
and  on  April  1  the  law  of  local  self-government  for 
city,  town,  and  village  went  into  effect. 

The  Japanese  Constitution  has  very  appropriately 
been  called  "the  Magna  Charta  of  Japanese  liberty." 
It  was  not,  however,  like  the  famous  English  docu- 
ment, extorted  by  force  from  an  unwilling  monarch 
and  a  cruel  tyrant,  but  was  voluntarily  granted  by 
a  kind  and  loved  ruler  at  the  expense  of  his  inherited 

1  Drawn  up  by  the  then  Count  (the  late  Prince)  Ito,  Mr.,  now 
Viscount,  Kaneko  and  Mr.  Suyematsu  (now  Viscount),  and  others. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  121 

and  long -established  rights.  The  present  Emperoi 
holds  the  throne  according  to  the  native  tradition, 
perpetuated  even  in  the  language  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, by  virtue  of  a  "  lineal  succession  unbroken  for 
ages  eternal."  But  even  though  rigid  criticism 
compels  us  to  reject  as  more  or  less  mythological 
the  so-called  "history"  of  about  1,000  years;  and 
although  Yoshihito,  therefore,  may  not  be  really  the 
123d  ruler  of  the  line  from  the  Japanese  Romulus 
(Jimmu),  nevertheless  he  remains  the  representative 
of  the  oldest  living  dynasty  in  the  world.  If,  then, 
time  is  a  factor  in  confirming  the  claims  and  rights  of 
a  ruler,  no  king  or  emperor  of  the  present  day  has  a 
better  title.  And  his  father,  born  and  bred  in  the 
atmosphere  of  Oriental  absolutism  and  despotism, 
"  in  consideration  of  the  progressive  tendency  of  the 
course  of  human  affairs,  and  in  parallel  with  the 
advance  of  civihzation,"  ^  voluntarily  and  generously 
admitted  his  people  to  a  share  in  the  administration  of 
public  affairs. 

That  important  document,  which  signed  away  such 
strongly  acquired  and  inherited  prerogatives,  at  the 
outset,  however,  seems  far  from  generous.  The 
Emperor,  "sacred  and  inviolate,"  is  *'the  head  of 
the  empire,"  combining  in  himself  the  rights  of 
sovereignty;  but  he  "exercises  them  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  Constitution."  It  is  only  "in 
consequence  of  an  urgent  necessity  to  maintain  pub- 
lic safety  or  to  avert   public   calamities,"  that  the 

1  This  and  following  quotations  are  from  the  Constitution  itself. 


122   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Emperor,  "when  the  Imperial  Diet  is  not  sitting,** 
may  issue  "Imperial  Ordinances  in  place  of  law.** 
But  these  ordinances  must  be  approved  by  the  Im- 
perial Diet  at  its  next  session,  or  become  "invalid 
for  the  future."  To  the  Emperor  is  reserved  the 
function  of  issuing  ordinances  necessary  for  carry- 
ing out  the  laws  passed  by  the  Diet  or  for  the 
maintenance  of  public  peace  and  order;  but  "no 
Ordinance  shall  in  any  way  alter  any  of  the  existing 
laws."  The  Emperor  also  determines  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  various  branches  of  the  government, 
appoints  and  dismisses  all  officials,  and  fixes  their 
salaries.  Moreover,  he  has  "  the  supreme  command 
of  the  army  and  navy,"  whose  organization  and 
peace  standing  he  determines ;  "  declares  war,  makes 
peace,  and  concludes  treaties";  "confers  titles  of  no- 
bility, rank,  orders,  and  other  marks  of  honor  " ;  and 
"orders  amnesty,  pardon,  commutation  of  punish- 
ments and  rehabilitation." 

Now  it  must  be  quite  evident  to  the  most  casual 
reader  that,  in  carrying  out  this  Constitution,  pat- 
terned after  that  of  Germany,  much  depends  upon 
the  Emperor  and  his  personality.  One,  like  Komei 
(the  father  of  the  recent  Emperor),  bigoted  and  in- 
tent upon  resisting  any  infringement,  to  the  slightest 
degree,  upon  his  "  divine  rights,"  could  create  a  great 
deal  of  friction  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  But, 
fortunately  for  Japan  and  the  world,  Mutsuhito  was 
not  at  all  inclined  to  be  narrow-minded,  selfish, 
and  despotic,  but  was  graciously  pleased  to  be  the 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  123 

leader  of  liis  subjects  in  broader  and  better  paths. 
And  although  the  Empress  had  no  share  in  the 
administration  and  wisely  kept  "  out  of  politics,"  her 
popularity  enhanced  the  interest  felt  in  the  reign 
recently  closed.^ 

It  is,  moreover,  fortunate  for  Japan  that  the  new 
Emperor,  Yoshihito,  is  also  a  man  of  most  liberal  ideas 
and  progressive  tendencies.  He  has  had  a  broad  edu- 
cation, by  both  public  and  private  instruction,  and  a 
careful  training  for  the  career  that  lies  before  him ; 
and  he  will  undoubtedly  be  found  ready  to  extend 
popular  privileges  just  so  far  as  conditions  warrant. 
Seated  on  the  ancestral  throne,  he  is  the  first  Japanese 
Emperor  who  has  received  any  education  in  public ; 
for  it  was  in  the  Gakushuin  —  or  Nobles'  School,  as  it 
is  called  in  English  —  that  he  completed  the  element- 
ary course.2  After  that,  on  account  of  poor  health, 
he  was  compelled  to  pursue  his  studies  under  private 
tutors.  - 

And  ti*at  the  Imperial  line  will,  in  all  human 
probability,  remain  "unbroken"  for  many  years,  is 
rendered  likely  by  the  fact  that  the  Emperor  and 
the  Empress  Sada  have  been  blessed  with  three 
healthy  sons,  Princes  Michi,  Atsu,  and  Teru,  who 
are  being  brought  up  by  professional  '*  tutors," 
Count  and  Countess  Kawamura,  away  from  court 
life,  with  such  care  as  the  needs  of  said  Imperial 
line  demand. 

1  See  Scidmore's  "  Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan/*  chaps,  xi.,  xii. 

2  See  "  The  Yankees  of  the  East,"  chap.  iii. 


124    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

But,  to  return  from  this  digression  to  the  subject 
of  the  Constitution,  another  body  recognized  by  that 
document  is  the  Privy  Council  (Sumitsu-In),  ap- 
pointed by  the  Emperor  and  consulted  by  him  upon 
certain  matters  of  State.  It  consists  of  1  President, 
1  Vice-President,  25  Councillors,  and  1  Secretary, 
with  5  assistants ;  and  it  is  composed  of  "  personages 
who  have  rendered  signal  service  to  the  State  and 
who  are  distinguished  for  their  experience, "  such  as 
ex-Ministers  of  State  and  others,  whose  "valuable 
advice  on  matters  of  State "  would  naturally  be 
sought.  The  matters  coming  within  the  cognizance 
of  the  Privy  Council  are  specified  as  follows: 
Matters  which  come  under  its  jurisdiction  by  the 
Law  of  the  Houses  (of  Parliament);  drafts  and 
doubtful  points  relating  to  articles  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  to  laws  and  ordinances  dependent  to  the 
Constitution;  proclamation  of  the  law  of  siege  and 
certain  Imperial  ordinances;  international  treaties; 
and  matters  specially  called  for.  The  Ministers  of 
State  are,  ex  officio,  members  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil; but  although  it  is  "the  Emperor's  highest 
resort  of  counsel,  it  shall  not  interfere  with  the 
Executive. " 

The  Cabinet  includes  the  holders  of  10  portfolios : 
those  of  the  Minister  President,  or  Premier;  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs;  the  Minister  of  Home 
Affairs;  the  Minister  of  Finance;  the  Minister  of 
the  Army,  or  War;  the  Minister  of  the  Navy;  the 
Minister  of    Justice;    the    Minister   of    Education; 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  125 

the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce ;  and  the 
Minister  of  Communications.  There  is  one  other 
official  who  holds  the  title  of  Minister,  but  is  not  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet,  that  is,  the  Minister  of  the 
Imperial  Household.  When  the  Cabinet  is  fully 
organized,  it  contains  10  members;  but  occasionally 
circumstances  compel  the  Premier  or  some  other 
Minister  to  hold  an  extra  portfolio,  at  least  tempo- 
rarily. Each  department  of  state  has  its  own  sub- 
ordinate officials,  most  of  whom  hold  office  under 
civil-service  rules  and  are  not  removable. 

The  titles  of  the  departments  are  mostly  self- 
explanatory,  and  correspond  in  general  to  similar 
departments  in  Occidental  countries;  but  in  some 
cases  there  are  vital  differences,  especially  in  com- 
parison with  the  United  States  Cabinet.  In  a  pater- 
nal government,  like  that  of  Japan,  the  Minister  of 
Home  Affairs  holds  a  much  more  important  position 
than  our  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  for  he  has  the 
general  oversight  of  the  police  system  and  the  prefec- 
tural  governments;  the  Minister  of  Justice  holds  a 
broader  position  than  our  Attorney-General;  and  the 
Minister  of  Communications  has  the  oversight,  not 
of  the  postal  system  only,  but  also  of  telegraphs, 
telephones,  railways,  and  other  modes  of  conveyance 
and  communication.  In  general,  as  will  be  ob- 
served, the  Japanese  Government  owns  many  in- 
stitutions which,  in  our  country,  are  entrusted  to 
private  enterprise. 

The  Premier  receives  a  salary  of  9,600  yen^  and 


126   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

other  ministers  receive  6,000  yen^  besides  official 
residence  and  sundry  allowances.  In  most  cases 
the  real  work  of  each  department  is  performed  by  the 
subordinate  officials,  while  the  frequently  changing  ^ 
Ministers  of  State  are  only  nominal  heads  of  the  de- 
partments. The  two  portfolios  of  the  Army  and  the 
Navy,  however,  have  been  taken  out  of  politics,  and 
are  not  subject  to  change  whenever  a  ministry  goes 
out  of  office.  Ministers  of  State,  as  well  as  govern- 
mental delegates,  specially  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose, "may,  at  any  time,  take  seats  and  speak  in 
either  House  "  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

The  Imperial  Diet  of  Japan  consists  of  two  Houses, 
the  House  of  Peers  and  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  membership  of  the  former  comprises  three 
classes, — hereditary,  elective,  and  appointive. ^  The 
members  of  the  Imperial  Family  and  of  the  orders  of 
Princes  and  Marquises  possess  the  hereditary  tenure. 
From  among  those  persons  who  have  the  titles  of 
Count,  Baron,  and  Viscount  a  certain  number  are 
chosen  by  election,  for  a  term  of  seven  years.  The 
Emperor  has  the  power  of  appointing  for  life  mem-  * 
bership  a  limited  number  of  persons,  deserving  on 
account  of  meritorious  services  to  the  State  or  of 
erudition.  Finally,  in  each  Fu  and  Ken  one  member 
is  elected  from  and  among  the  highest  tax-payers  and 
appointed  by  the  Emperor,  for  a  term  of  seven  years. 

The  members,  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  always 

1  For  table  of  Cabinet  changes,  see  Appendix. 

3  The  number  is  variable ;  in  1912,  it  was  373.    See  Appendix. 


DEPARTMENTS    OF   STATE  :    NAVY  ;   AGRICULTURE    AND 
COMMERCE  ;    JUSTICE  ;   FOREIGN    AFFAIRS 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  127 

elected  by  ballot  in  accordance  with  the  Election 
Law,  by  which  they  now  number  379.  Their  term 
of  office  is  four  years,  unless  they  lose  their  seats 
by  dissolution  of  the  Diet,  as  has  often  happened. 
"Those  [persons]  alone  shall  be  eligible  [as  candi- 
dates], that  are  male  Japanese  subjects,  of  not  less 
than  full  thirty  years  of  age,  and  that  in  the  Fu  or 
Ken  in  which  they  desire  to  be  elected,  have  been 
paying  direct  national  taxes  to  an  amount  of  not  less 
than  15  yen^  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  one  year 
previous  to  the  date  of  making  out  the  electoral  list, 
and  that  are  still  paying  that  amount  of  direct 
national  taxes."  ^  Certain  officials,  as  well  as  mili- 
tary and  naval  officers,  are  ineligible.  A  voter  must 
be  full  twenty-five  years  of  age;  must  have  actually 
resided  in  that  Fu  or  Ken  for  one  year;  and  must 
have  been  paying  direct  national  taxes  of  not  less 
than  10  yen.  The  limits  of  an  electoral  district  in- 
clude a  whole  Fu  or  Ken^  except  that  an  incorporated 
city  {Shi)  forms  one  or  more  districts  by  itself.  And 
the  number  of  the  latter  kind  of  districts  has  been 
increased  lately,  so  that  urban  populations  might 
have  a  more  adequate  representation.  The  plan  of 
unsigned  uni-nominal  ballots  is  employed.  The 
present  number  of  eligible  voters  is  a  little  over  one 
million. 

The  first  election  under  the  Constitution  took 
place  (whether  designedly  or  accidentally,  I  know 
not),  by  a  curious  coincidence,  on  July  ^  1890 ;  and 

1  The  property  qualification  has  since  been  abolished. 


128   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

the  first  session  of  the  Imperial  Diet  opened  on 
November  29,  1890.  On  December  2  the  House  of 
Peers  received  the  first  bill  ever  presented  to  a 
National  Assembly  in  Japan;  and  on  December  4 
the  first  Budget  (for  1891)  was  laid  before  the  House 
of  Representatives  by  Count  Matsukata,  Minister  of 
Finance. 

Some  notice  must  be  taken  of  the  rights  and  duties 
of  subjects  under  the  Japanese  Constitution.  All 
such  persons  are  eligible  to  civil  and  military  offices ; 
amenable  to  service  in  the  army  and  the  navy,  and 
the  duty  of  paying  taxes,  according  to  law ;  have  the 
liberty  of  abode,  inviolate  right  of  property,  right  of 
trial  by  law,  and  freedom  of  speech,  writing,  publica- 
tion, public  meeting,  association,  and  religious  belief, 
"within  the  limits  of  law";  cannot  be  arrested, 
detained,  tried,  or  punished,  "unless  according  to 
law,"  and  can  claim  inviolate  secrecy  of  correspond- 
ence. Moreover,  "  the  house  of  no  Japanese  subject 
shall  be  entered  or  searched  without  his  consent," 
except  in  due  process  of  law.  All  subjects  may  also 
present  petitions,  "  by  observing  the  proper  forms  of 
respect."  The  freedom  of  religious  belief  is  granted 
"within  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order, 
and  not  antagonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects." 
These  "  rights  "  are  old  to  Anglo-Saxons,  but  new  to 
Japanese. 

Now  we  often  see  and  hear  rather  uncomplimentary 
statements  about  the  Imperial  Diet,  political  parties, 
cabinet  ministers,  and  Japanese  political  affairs  in 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  129 

general,  and  are  even  told  that  Japan  is  only  "  play- 
ing "  with  parliamentary  and  representative  institu- 
tions, that  her  popular  assemblies  are  mere  "toys," 
her  constitutional  government  is  all  a  "farce,"  and 
her  new  civilization  is  nothing  but  a  "bib."  Such 
criticisms,  however,  result  either  from  ignorance  or 
from  a  wrong  point  of  view.  It  is  undeniably  true 
that,  viewed  from  the  vantage-ground  attained  by 
popular  institutions  and  constitutional  government 
in  many  Occidental  nations,  Japan  is  still  lagging 
behind.  It  is  not  fair,  however,  to  judge  her  by 
our  own  standards ;  the  only  just  way  is  to  estimate 
carefully  the  exact  difference  between  her  former 
and  her  present  conditions.  This  the  author  has 
tried  to  do  elsewhere  in  a  pamphlet  ^  on  "  Constitu- 
tional Government  in  Japan,"  in  which  he  has  given 
a  sketch  of  the  workings  of  the  Japanese  Constitu- 
tion during  the  first  decade,  or  period,  of  its  history. 
From  that  he  quotes  the  following  conclusions :  — 

The  progress  made  during  the  first  decade  of  con- 
stitutional government  in  Japan  was  considerable. 
In  the  first  place,  popular  rights  were  largely  ex- 
panded by  the  removal  of  most  of  the  restrictions 
on  freedom  of  the  press  and  public  meeting;  as 
much  extension  of  the  electoral  franchise  as  seems 
warranted  was  accomplished ;  and  public  opinion,  as 
voiced  in  the  newspapers  and  magazines,  was  wield- 
ing an  increased  and  constantly  increasing  influence. 

1  Published  in  the  "Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Politi« 
cal  and  Social  Science." 

9 


130        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

On  this  point  the  "Japan  Times"  says:  "No  one 
who  goes  into  the  country  and  compares  the  present 
degree  of  the  people's  political  education  with  what 
it  was  ten  years  ago,  can  fail  to  be  struck  by  the 
immense  progress  achieved  during  that  interval.". 

In  the  second  place,  the  character  of  the  two 
Houses  of  the  Imperial  Diet  has  greatly  improved. 
The  inexperienced  have  given  way  to  the  experi- 
enced, the  ignorant  to  the  intelligent;  so  that,  after 
six  elections,  the  personnel  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives is  of  a  much  better  quality,  and  the  House 
of  Peers  has  been  quickened  by  the  infusion  of  new 
blood.    Experience,  as  usual,  has  been  a  good  teacher. 

In  the  third  place,  the  Cabinet,  theoretically  re- 
sponsible to  the  Emperor  because  appointed  by  him 
on  his  own  sole  authority,  is  practically  responsible 
to  the  Imperial  Diet  and  must  command  the  support 
of  a  majority  of  that  body.  Hereafter  it  would  seem 
that  dissolution  of  the  Diet  is  not  likely  to  occur  as 
often  as  dissolution  of  the  Cabinet. 

The  one  weak  point  in  this  situation  is  that, 
although  the  principle  of  party  cabinets  is  thus  es- 
tablished, its  practical  application  is  difficult  of  reali- 
zation, simply  because  there  are  no  true  political 
parties  in  Japan.  There  are  many  so-called  "  par- 
ties," which  are  really  only  factions,  bound  together 
by  personal,  class,  geographical,  or  mercantile  ties, 
and  without  distinctive  principles.  One  "  party  '* 
is  actually  Count  Okuma's  following;  another  is 
Count  Itagaki's ;    another  is    called   "  the    business 


CONSTITUTIONAL  IMPERIALISM  131 

men's  party " ;  another  is  composed  of  politicians  of 
the  Northeast ;  and  another  tries  to  maintain  the  old 
clan  alliances ;  so  in  1913  Prince  Katsura  assumed 
leadership  of  a  new  progressive  party.^ 

But  it  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  "Japan  is  at 
length  passing  out  of  the  epoch  of  persons  and  en- 
tering the  era  of  principles,"  when,  of  course,  will 
speedily  come  the  development  of  parties.  It  is  not, 
perhaps,  strange  that  the  personality  of  the  great 
statesmen  who  made  New  Japan  possible  has  been 
felt  for  so  long  a  time,  nor  that  the  able  men  of  the 
rising  generation  have  begun  to  chafe  a  little  under 
the  prolonged  control  of  those  older  statesmen.  But, 
as  the  "Japan  Times"  says,  "the  conflict  between 
the  old  and  the  new  elements  of  political  power,  the 
so-called  clan  statesmen  and  the  party  politicians, 
has  been  so  far  removed  that  the  time  is  already  in 
sight  when  the  country  will  see  them  working  har- 
moniously under  the  same  banner  and  with  the 
same  platform."  Such  was  apparently  the  case  in  the 
Seiyukwai,  Marquis  Ito's  new  party,  organized  in 
1900,  the  closing  year  of  the  first  decade  of  Japanese 
constitutionalism.  And  this  problem  of  political 
parties  is  the  great  one  to  be  solved  in  the  second 
period  of  constitutional  government  in  Japan. 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  working  of 
the  new  system  of  government  has,  on  the  whole, 
been  satisfactory.  We  must  acknowledge,  with  the 
"Japan  Mail,"  that  "it  would  be  altogether  extrava- 

^  See  Appendix. 


182   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ganfc  to  expect  that  Japan's  new  constitutional  gar- 
ments should  fit  her  perfectly  from  the  first.  They 
are  too  large  for  her.  She  has  to  grow  into  them, 
and  of  course  the  process  is  destined  to  be  more 
or  less  awkward."  We  must  agree  with  Prince 
Ito,  the  author  of  the  Constitution,  not  only  that 
there  has  been  the  experimental  period,  but  also  that 
"  excellent  results  have  thus  far  been  obtained,  when 
it  is  remembered  how  sudden  has  been  the  transition 
from  feudalism  to  representative  institutions."  We 
ought,  indeed,  to  bear  in  mind,  that,  when  the  Con- 
stitution was  promulgated,  Japan  was  only  eighteen 
years  out  of  feudalism  and  twenty-one  years  out  of 
military  despotism ;  so  that,  by  both  the  Oriental  and 
the  Occidental  reckoning.  New  Japan  had  only  just 
come  "of  age"  politically.  She  seems,  therefore, 
deserving  of  the  greatest  credit  for  the  progress  of 
the  first  decade  of  constitutionalism. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"  The  Story  of  Japan  "  (Murray),  "  Advance  Japan  '*  (Morris), 
and  "  The  Yankees  of  the  East "  (Curtis),  give  some  informa- 
tion here  and  there  about  the  government  of  Japan.  But 
especially  helpful  are  Wigmore's  articles  in  the  "  Nation  "  and 
♦♦  Scribner's  Monthly,"  lyenaga's  "  Constitutional  Development 
of  Japan,"  Knapp's  "Feudal  and  Modern  Japan,"  Count 
(now  Marquis)  Ito's  "  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the 
Empire  of  Japan,"  and  Lay's  "  History  of  Japanese  Political 
Parties  '*  (Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xxx. 
part  iii.).  See  also  "  The  Political  Ideas  of  Modern  Japan  " 
(Kawalj^ami),  and  "  Dai  Nippon  "  (Dyer),  chaps,  xiii.  and  xiv. 
Uylharft's  "  Political  Development  of  Japan  (1867-1909)  "  is 
the  latest  and  best. 


CHAPTER  X 
LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Local  goyernment  under  feudalism ; 
periods  of  modern  local  self-government ;  gradual  development 
therein ;  prefectural  assemblies ;  candidates  and  electors  ;  standing 
committee ;  sessions ;  business ;  speaking ;  petitions  ;  how  bills 
become  laws;  powers  of  prefectural  assemblies,  theoretical  and 
practical;  residents  and  citizens  of  cities,  towns,  and  villages; 
rights  and  duties  of  citizens;  administration  in  city,  town,  and 
village ;  city  council ;  town  and  village  officials ;  city  assembly ; 
assemblymen  ;  powers  of  city  assembly ;  town  or  village  assembly  ; 
special  provisions  for  towns  and  villages ;  administration  of  terri- 
tories; pacification  of  Formosa;  colonial  government;  policy  in 
Formosa ;  political  progress  in  Japan.  —  Bibliography. 

WE  have  already  noted  incidentally  in  pre- 
ceding chapters  some  of  the  steps  in  the 
development  of  local  self-government  in 
Japan;  and  now  we  must  treat  that  subject  more 
particularly.  First  it  is  well  to  observe  in  passing 
that  the  steps  from  feudalism  to  local  self-govern- 
ment were  not  so  difficult  as  might  be  imagined;  for 
under  the  feudal  system  local  government  by  clans 
had  prevailed.  1  And  yet  when  feudalism  was  abol- 
ished, the  reconstruction  of  local  government  was 
entered  upon  slowly  and  cautiously  in  order  to  mini- 
mize jealousies  and  other  obstacles. 

1  See  valuable  papers  by  Simmons  and  Wigmore  in  Transactions 
Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xix.  pp.  37-270,  and  vol.  xx.,  Supple- 
ment, part  i.,  pp.  41-()2. 


134        A  HANDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Wigmore,  in  his  articles  ^  on  this  subject,  divides 
the  period  from  1867  to  1889  into  two  parts  (1867- 
1878  and  1878-1889),  and  explains  as  follows:  "The 
former  was  occupied  with  testing  the  capacity  of  the 
people  for  self-government;  the  latter  with  extend- 
ing to  them  a  larger  and  larger  measure  of  power, 
and  in  advancing  towards  a  proper  degree  of  decen- 
tralization."  As  he  wrote  in  1890,  he  was  just  at 
the  beginning  of  the  third  period,  what  he  himself 
calls  "a  new  period,"  during  which  local  self- 
government,  under  the  new  constitutional  regime, 
was  to  be  still  further  expanded  in  the  line  of 
popular  privileges. 

After  the  Shogunate  fell,  but  before  feudalism 
was  formally  abolished,  that  is,  from  1867  to  1871, 
the  chiefs  of  the  clans  were  allowed  to  continue 
their  administration  of  local  affairs  under  the  title 
of  chi'hanji  (local  governor).  But  when  feudalism 
was  formally  abolished  in  1871,  these  feudal  lords 
were  retired  on  annuities ;  their  fiefs  (263  in  number) 
were  incorporated,  regardless  of  former  geographical 
and  feudal  boundaries,  and  with  regard  for  conven- 
ience of  administration  by  the  central  government, 
into  72  Ken  and  3  Fu  ;  and  outsiders  were  largely 
appointed  to  the  position  of  governor  in  these  new 
local  governments.  The  first  attempts  on  the  part 
of  the  central  government  to  consult  local  public 
opinion  were  by  means  of  meetings  of  the  local  offi- 
cials;   but  the  people  were  gradually  allowed,  in 

1  See  "Nation,"  vol.  li.  (1890). 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  135 

rather  an  informal  and  limited  way,  to  have  a  voice 
in  certain  matters.  In  1878,  however,  as  we  have 
seen,  prefectural  assemblies,  the  members  of  which 
should  be  chosen  by  popular  election,  were  estab- 
lished ;  and  just  ten  years  later  a  law  extending  local 
self-government  to  cities,  towns,  and  villages  was 
enacted,  to  go  into  effect  in  1889.  And  these  two 
agencies  of  local  self-government  in  Japan  are  worthy 
of  a  little  study. 

The  Japanese  Kenhwai  and  Fuhwai  correspond,  in 
general,  with  an  American  State  legislature,  but 
differ  in  many  respects,  because  they  are  part  of  a 
centralized  national  administration.  They  are  "to 
counsel  about  the  budget  of  expenses  to  be  met  by 
local  taxation,  and  about  the  manner  of  collecting 
such  taxes."  The  members  are  elected  in  each  Ken 
or  Fu  according  to  the  population,  at  the  rate  of 
1  member  for  each  20,000  people.  Each  electoral 
district  may  also  elect  yobi-in  (reserve  members), 
twice  the  number  of  regular  members.  As  their 
name  indicates,  they  are  to  take  the  places  of  regular 
members  who  may  for  any  reason  be  unable  to  serve. 
It  is,  therefore,  unlikely  that  there  would  ever  be  a 
vacancy  to  be  filled  by  a  special  election ;  for  each 
member  has  two  "substitutes  "  ready  to  step  into  his 
vacant  place !  The  term  of  service  covers  4  years ; 
but  half  of  the  members  retire  every  2  years.  Each 
member  receives  an  emolument  of  1  yen  per  diem 
during  the  session,  and  travelling  expenses. 

A  candidate  for  representative  in  a  prefectural  as- 


136        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

sembly  must  be  over  25  years  of  age,  a  permanent 
resident  of  that  Ken  or  Fu^  and  be  paying  an  annual 
land-tax  of  more  than  10  yen.  Voters  in  such  an 
election  must  be  over  20  years  of  age,  permanent 
residents  of  that  Ken  or  Fu,  and  be  paying  annual 
land-taxes  of  more  than  5  yen.  There  are  about 
2,000,000  voters  in  all. 

From  among  the  members,  the  assembly  elects  a 
"standing  committee  of  from  five  to  seven  persons," 
who  serve  for  a  period  of  two  years.  They  remain 
in  the  capital  throughout  the  year,  to  give  advice 
when  the  Governor  asks  it  about  the  manner  and 
order  of  carrying  out  the  enactments  of  the  assembly 
and  about  the  payment  of  extraordinary  expense.  A 
member  of  this  committee  receives  "  from  30  yen  to 
80  yen  per  month,  and  travelling  expenses." 

The  ordinary  annual  session  of  an  assembly  opens 
some  time  in  November  and  continues  for  not  more 
than  30  days.  But  the  Governor  has  power  to  call 
a  special  session  and  to  suspend  an  assembly ;  while 
the  power  to  prorogue  an  assembly  rests  with  the 
Minister  of  State  for  Home  Affairs. 

Each  session  of  an  assembly  is  formally  "  opened  " 
by  the  Governor;  and  the  business  to  come  before 
the  assembly  is  presented  in  bills  originating  with 
him  and  his  subordinates.  At  any  time,  when  a 
member  of  the  assembly  wishes  explanations  concern- 
ing any  matter  within  the  purview  of  the  assembly, 
the  Governor  or  his  representative  must  explain.  In 
fact,  such  officials  may  speak  at  any  time,  provided 


NAVAL    LEADERS    OF    JAPAN 
ADMIRAL    ENOMOTO  ADMIRAL    KABAYAMA 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  137 

they  do  not  interrupt  the  speech  of  a  member;  but 
they  have  no  vote. 

When  a  member  wishes  to  address  the  assembly, 
he  rises,  calls  out  "  Gicho  "  (Chairman),  and  gives 
the  number  of  his  seat.  When  the  chairman  has 
recognized  him  by  repeating  that  number,  he  "has 
the  floor."! 

If  other  matters,  besides  those  included  in  the 
"original  bill(s) "  of  the  Governor,  seem  to  at  least 
two  members  to  warrant  discussion,  they  present 
these  matters  in  the  form  of  petitions;  and  if  the 
assembly  grants  permission,  these  petitions  may  be 
discussed,  like  bills. 

No  bill  becomes  a  law  until  it  has  been  signed  by 
the  Governor.  If  the  latter  does  not  agree  with  a 
bill,  he  may  appeal  to  the  Department  of  Home 
Affairs,  where  it  will  be  finally  decided. 

If  we  now  endeavor  to  measure  the  extent  and 
limitations  of  the  power  of  a  Japanese  prefectural 
assembly,  we  may  say  that  in  theory  a  Kenkwai  or 
a  Fukwai  is  by  no  means  entirely  independent  of  the 
central  government,  nor  does  it  possess  absolute  con- 
trol of  the  matters  of  its  own  Ken  or  Fu,  It  will  be 
noticed  that  in  all  cases  the  final  ratification  or  de- 
cision rests  with  the  Governor  or  the  Department  of 
Home  Affairs.  The  latter  also  has  the  power  in  its 
own  hands  of  suspending  an  assembly  at  its  discre- 
tion.     It  would    seem,    then,    that  theoretically  a 

1  The  sessions  arc  generally  very  orderly ;  no  smoking  or  drink- 
ing is  allowed  in  the  assembly-room. 


138   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Fuhwai  or  a  Kenhwai  is  pretty  much  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  central  government,  and  has  very  little 
real  power  of  its  own.  Its  nature  appears  more  like 
that  of  an  elective  advisory  board  than  of  a  legisla- 
tive body. 

But,  in  practice  and  in  fact,  a  wise  Governor, 
though  he  is  an  appointive  officer  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment, does  not  often  put  himself  in  opposition  to 
public  opinion,  unless  it  be  a  case  of  the  greatest 
importance ;  and  the  Department  of  Home  Affairs  is 
loath  to  exercise  authority  unless  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  central  government  holds  the  power 
to  control  these  assemblies  if  it  should  be  necessary; 
but  it  also  respects  public  opinion,  and  allows  local 
self-government  as  far  as  possible.^ 
/  The  extension  of  local  self-government  to  cities, 
towns,  and  villages  (shi,  cho^  and  son)  led  to  the  in- 
troduction into  the  Japanese  language  of  several 
special  terms,  like  jumin  (resident)  and  komin  (citi- 
zen), and  to  a  careful  distinction  between  the  respec- 
tive rights  and  duties  of  the  two.     The  "residents  " 

1  The  principle  of  local  self-government  has  been  most  signally 
upheld  in  one  instance  by  the  Imperial  Japanese  government. 
Recently  the  Governor  of  Gumma  Prefecture,  in  the  face  of  the 
public  opinion  of  that  section,  gave  permission  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  system  of  licensed  immorality.  Inasmuch  as  the 
people  of  that  prefecture  have  always  taken  great  pride  in  the 
fact  that  their  section  was  an  oasis  in  the  desert,  they  raised  a 
great  storm,  and  accused  the  Governor  of  having  lent  himself  to 
speculators.  Whether  or  not  this  accusation  was  true,  the  Minister 
of  Home  Affairs  so  far  respected  local  opinion  as  to  revoke  the  per- 
mission granted  by  the  Governor  and  to  remove  the  latter  from 
oflSlce. 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  139 

of  a  city  [town  or  village]  include  "all  those  who 
have  their  residence  in  the  city  [town  or  village], 
without  distinction  of  sex,  age,  color,  nationality,  or 
condition  in  life.  A  "citizen,"  however,  must  be 
"an  independent  male  person,"  that  is,  one  who  has 
completed  his  twenty -fifth  year  and  has  a  household; 
he  must  be  "  a  subject  of  the  empire  and  in  the  en- 
joyment of  his  civil  rights  " ;  and  for  two  years  he 
must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  given  local  division, 
must  have  contributed  toward  its  common  burdens, 
and  must  have  paid  therein  a  "  national  land-tax  of 
2  or  more  yen  in  other  direct  national  taxes."  The 
rights  of  a  citizen  over  and  above  his  rights  as  a  resi- 
dent are  simply  but  comprehensively  stated.  They 
consist  in  the  privilege  of  voting  in  the  local  elec- 
tions, and  of  eligibility  to  the  honorary  offices. 
There  is,  however,  a  slight  qualification  of  this 
seemingly  universal  citizen  suffrage.  Those  whose 
citizenship,  for  reasons  to  be  given  later,  is  sus- 
pended, and  "those  who  are  in  actual  military  or 
naval  service,"  are  disfranchised.  Companies,  how- 
ever, and  "  other  juristic  persons  "  are  entitled  to  the 
suffrage  on  similar  conditions  with  individuals. ^ 

But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  duties  of  a  citi- 
zen, we  find  peculiar  conditions.  The  citizen  of  a 
Japanese  city,  town,  or  village,  is  under  obligation 

1  Baron  Kentaro  Kaneko  has  been  elected  a  member  of  the  City 
Council  (of  Tdkyo)  as  representative  of  the  first-class  tax-payers 
in  Kojimachi  Ku.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Nippon  Yiisen  Kwaisha 
(Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company)  is  the  only  first-class  tax-payer 
in  that  ward,  and  the  Baron  secured  the  one  vote. 


140    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

to  fill  any  honorary  office  to  which  he  may  be  elected 
or  appointed;  and  except  for  certain  specified  rea- 
sons he  cannot  decline  ofificial  service  without  being 
"  subjected  to  suspension  of  citizenship  for  from  three 
to  six  years,  together  with  an  additional  levy,  during 
the  same  period,  of  from  one-eighth  to  one-quarter 
more  than  his  ordinary  share  of  contribution  to 
the  city  expenditure."  Here  is  compulsory  "public 
spirit"!  On  the  whole,  citizenship  seems  to  be  re- 
garded more  as  a  duty  than  as  a  privilege ;  and  the 
citizens  best  qualified  to  fill  official  positions  of  trust 
would  find  it  much  more  difficult  than  in  America 
to  "keep  out  of  politics." 

The  administration  of  local  affairs  in  city,  town, 
or  village  is  more  or  less  centralized.  In  the  cities 
the  origination  and  the  administration  of  the  local 
laws  devolves  upon  a  "  city  council " ;  and  in  the 
towns  and  the  villages,  upon  certain  chiefs  and  their 
deputies. 

A  city  council  consists  of  a  mayor,  his  deputy, 
and  a  certain  number  of  honorary  councilmen.  The 
mayor  is  appointed  directly  by  the  Emperor  from 
among  three  candidates  previously  selected  by  the 
city  assembly,  a  body  to  be  described  later.  The 
deputy-mayor  and  councilmen  are  elected  by  the  city 
assembly.  The  councilmen  hold  office  for  four  years, 
but  half  of  them  retire  every  two  years.  In  the  case 
of  a  very  large  city  it  is  permissible  to  divide  the 
city  into  Kv,  (wards),  each  with  its  own  chief  and 
deputy  and  even  council  and  assembly.     The  func- 


LOCAL   SELF-GOVERNMENT  141 

tions  of  a  city  council  include  the  preparation  of 
business  for  the  city  assembly  and  the  execution 
of  the  decisions  of  the  assembly;  the  administration 
of  the  city  revenue,  and  the  carrying  out  of  the 
budget  voted  by  the  assembly ;  and  general  superin- 
tendence of  city  affairs. 

In  towns  or  villages  these  duties  devolve  upon 
the  mayors  and  deputies,  who  are  elected  by  the  town 
or  village  assembly  from  among  the  local  citizens. 

The  city  assembly,  already  mentioned,  is  a  popular 
representative  body.  The  number  of  members  varies, 
in  proportion  to  the  population,  from  thirty  to  sixty; 
and  the  membership  is  divided  into  three  classes, 
elected  by  three  classes  of  voters,  according  to  the 
amount  of  taxes  paid  by  the  electors  to  the  city. 
The  object  of  this  division,  copied  from  the  Prus- 
sian system  of  local  government,  seems  to  be  to  give 
the  highest  tax-payers  a  power  and  a  representation 
greater  than  what  they  might  secure  by  mere  propor- 
tion of  numbers.^ 

The  assemblymen  hold  office  for  six  years,  are 
eligible  for  re-election,  and,  like  the  councilmen, 
draw  no  salary,  but  receive  "compensation  for  the 
actual  expenses  needed  for  the  discharge  of  their 
duties."  The  assemblymen  go  out  in  rotation  every 
two  years. 

The  principal  matters  to  be  decided  by  the  city 
assembly,  besides  the  election  of  certain  city  officials 
by  secret  ballot,    are  as  follows:    the  making   and 

1  See  note  at  bottom  of  page  139. 


142   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

altering  of  city  by-laws  and  regulations ;  the  voting 
of  the  budget  and  all  matters  involving  expense ;  the 
modes  of  imposing  and  collecting  all  kinds  of  taxes ; 
the  incurring  of  a  new  liability  or  the  relinquishment 
of  an  acquired  right;  the  modes  of  management  of 
city  property  and  establishments;  etc. 

The  constitution  of  a  town  or  village  assembly  is 
also  based  upon  the  population,  according  to  a  fixed 
ratio.  But  in  the  grouping  of  electors  according  to 
the  amount  of  taxes  paid,  there  are  only  two  classes. 
The  rules,  powers,  and  functions  of  a  town  or  vil- 
lage assembly  correspond  exactly  to  those  of  the  city 
assembly. 

There  are,  in  the  case  of  towns  and  villages,  two 
provisions  which  are  not  necessary  in  the  case  of 
cities.  One  provision  prescribes  a  method  by  which 
two  or  more  towns  or  villages,  by  mutual  agreement 
and  with  the  permission  of  the  superintending  au- 
thority, may  form  a  union  for  the  common  adminis- 
tration of  affairs  that  are  common  to  them.  The 
other  provision  prescribes  that,  by  a  town  or  village 
by-law,  decided  upon  by  the  Gun  council,  "  a  small 
town  or  village  may  substitute  for  the  town  or  vil- 
lage assembly  a  general  meeting  of  all  citizens  having 
suffrage. "  This  appears  to  be  an  imitation,  in  theory 
at  least,  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  town  meeting  and 
village  assembly. 

The  privileges  of  local  self-government  are  ex- 
tended to  all  parts  of  the  empire  except  Hokkaido 
and  Formosa,  which  are  administered  as  "  territories  " 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  143 

by  the  central  government.  In  Hokkaido,  moreover, 
a  small  measure  of  local  administration  has  been 
granted,  and  this  will  be  enlarged  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  But  Japanese  rule  in  Formosa  is  worthy 
of  special  consideration,  because  it  is  illustrative  of 
what  Japan  can  do  in  bringing  enemies  under  her 
jurisdiction  into  harmony  with  her  government. 
Japanese  colonial  government  in  Formosa  may  be 
called  a  success. 

When  Formosa  ^  was  ceded  by  China  to  Japan  in 
1895,  it  was  well  understood  that  the  Japanese  had 
no  easy  task  in  pacifying  the  Chinese,  civilizing  the 
savages,  and  thus  bringing  the  beautiful  isle,  with 
its  great  resources,  under  cultivation  and  proper  re- 
straint. But,  by  a  wise  combination  of  military  force 
and  civil  government,  Japan  has  achieved  a  remark- 
able success. 

At  first,  for  a  brief  period,  Formosan  affairs  were 
under  a  separate  department  of  State,  that  of  Coloni- 
zation; but  when  administrative  economy  and  re- 
form were  demanded,  this  department  was  abolished, 
and  the  Governor-General  of  Formosa,  appointed  by 
the  Emperor  upon  recommendation  of  the  Cabinet, 
was  made  directly  responsible  to  the  Cabinet.  At 
first,  of  course,  mistakes  were  made,  and  a  great  deal 
of  incapacity  and  corruption  manifested  themselves 
in  official  circles.  But,  by  a  gradual  weeding  out 
of  the  incompetent  and  the  dishonest,  the  civil  ser- 
vice has  been  greatly  improved.     Especially  in  deal- 

*  "The  Island  of  Formosa"  (Davidson)  is  invaluable. 


144   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ing  with  opium  smoking  and  foot-binding  among 
the  Chinese  has  the  Japanese  government  shown 
remarkable  tact.  And  it  has  also  encouraged  local 
administration  among  the  natives  to  the  extent  of 
employing  them  in  subordinate  positions  where  they 
can  be  trained  for  future  usefulness. 

The  general  policy  of  Japan  in  Formosa  has  been 
stated  succinctly  by  Count  Kabayama:  "Subjugate 
it  from  one  side  by  force  of  arms,  and  then  confer 
on  the  subjugated  portion  the  benefits  of  civil  gov- 
ernment." It  is  the  expressed  determination  to 
make  Formosa,  "body,  soul,  and  spirit,"  a  part  of 
their  empire ;  and  reliable  testimony  shows  that  they 
are  making  a  success  of  their  labors.^ 

We  have  now  noticed  the  chief  features  of  local 
self-government  as  applied  in  Japan  to  prefectures, 
counties,  cities,  towns,  and  villages.  Although  there 
are  many  enactments  against  which  the  democratic 
ideas  of  Americans  would  revolt,  the  system  is  cer- 
tainly well  adapted  to  the  present  needs  and  capabili- 
ties of  Japan.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  Japan's 
political  institutions  have  been  developed,  since  the 
Restoration  of  1868,  from  the  top  downward.  In 
Japan  the  people  are  conservative,  and  the  govern- 
ment is  progressive;  and  the  people  are  simply 
under  the  necessity  of  growing  up  to  political  privi- 
leges that  are  gradually  bestowed  upon  them.  And 
we  may  feel  assured  that,  as  the  people  show  them- 
selves capable  of  exercising  power,  their  privileges 

1  See  Appendix. 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  145 

will  be  gradually  extended.  We  should  not  find 
fault  with  Japan,  because  in  only  a  few  years  she 
has  not  leaped  into  the  enjoyment  of  political  privi- 
leges which  the  English  and  American  people  ob- 
tained only  after  centuries  of  slow  and  often  bloody 
development;  but  we  should  congratulate  Japan, 
because  by  peaceful  measures  she  has  gradually  re- 
moved herself  entirely  out  of  the  pale  of  Oriental 
absolutism,  beyond  even  despotic  Russia,  and  may 
be  classed  with  her  model,  Germany. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Especially  helpful  are  lyenaga's  "Constitutional  Develop- 
ment of  Japan,"  Wigmore's  articles  in  the  "  Nation,"  and  several 
papers  in  the  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan.  See 
also  the  author's  "  Local  Self-Government  in  Japan  "  in  the 
"  Political  Science  Quarterly  "  for  June,  1892,  and  "  A  Japanese 
State  Legislature"  in  the  ''Nation'*  for  February  27,  1890. 
On  the  subject  of  Formosa,  besides  Davidson's  book  already 
mentioned,  see  chap.  xiv.  of  Ransome's  "  Japan  in  Transition," 
pp.  167,  169,  of  Diosy's  "New  Far  East,"  and  Takekoshi's 
"Japanese  Rule  in  Formosa." 


10 


CHAPTER  XI 
JAPAN  AS   A  WORLD   POWER 

Outline  of  Topics:  Standards  of  world  power;  conscription; 
draft  and  exemption ;  army ;  arms  and  ammunition ;  officers  of  the 
army ;  navy ;  types  of  Japanese  war-vessels ;  coal  supply ;  "  Blue- 
jacket Spirit";  Japan  as  a  sea  power;  growth  of  cosmopolitan 
spirit;  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  —  natural,  guarantee  of  peace, 
confession  of  England's  weakness,  admission  of  Japan's  strengtli ; 
Japan's  responsibility  ;  meaning  for  Christianity ;  the  United  States 
a  silent  partner.  —  Bibliography. 

IT  is  a  sad  commentary  on  the  present  standards 
of  civilization  that  a  consideration  of  Japan  as 
a  world  power  requires  special  attention  to 
military  and  naval  affairs.  It  is  rather  a  strange 
coincidence  that  it  was  not  until  little  Japan  in  1894 
showed  that  she  could  easily  overcome  immense  China 
that  the  *'  Great  Powers "  were  willing  to  revise 
their  treaties  with  her  on  terms  of  equality  and  ad- 
mit her  to  the  comity  of  nations.  And  it  is  another 
strange  coincidence  that  it  was  the  Boxer  troubles 
which  gave  Japan  another  opportunity  to  display  the 
efficiency  of  her  military  and  naval  organizations,  and 
win  such  laurels  side  by  side  with  troops  of  the  other 
"  Powers,"  that  Great  Britain,  the  mightiest  of  them 
all,  abandoned  her  time-honored  policy  of  "  splendid 
isolation  "  and  sought  Japan's  assistance  by  means 


DISTINGUISHED  LAND  COMMANDERS 

GENERAL  BARON  KUROKI     GENERAL  BARON  OKU 
GENERAL  BARON  NODZU 


JAPAN  AS  A  WORLD  POWER  147 

of  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance.  It  is  not,  however, 
to  be  imagined  that  Great  Britain  overlooked  or  ig- 
nored Japan's  other  elements  of  power ;  but  it  is  quite 
evident  that  the  latter's  military  and  naval  efficiency 
made  a  great  impression  on  the  former.  Therefore 
it  is  our  duty,  having  considered  Japan's  geographical, 
industrial,  commercial,  social,  historical,  and  political 
features,  to  take  up  now  her  polemic  ability. 

The  Japanese  army  and  navy  are  created  and  sus- 
tained, as  to  personnel,  by  a  conscription  system, 
quite  like  that  of  Germany.  Theoretically,  "  all 
males  between  the  full  ages  of  IT  and  40  years,  who 
are  Japanese  subjects,  shall  be  liable  to  conscrip- 
tion." ^  This  period  is,  moreover,  divided  up  as 
follows :  (1)  Active  service  with  the  colors,  for  3 
years  in  the  army  and  4  years  in  the  navy,  by  those 
who  have  "  attained  the  full  age  of  20  years  "  ;  so 
that  those  who  are  between  17  and  20  are  apparently 
exempt  except  "  in  time  of  war  or  other  emergency '' ; 
(2)  First  Reserve  term,  of  4  years  in  the  army  and 
3  years  in  the  navy,  "by  such  as  have  completed 
their  service  with  the  colors  "  ;  (3)  Second  Reserve 
term  of  5  years,  "  by  those  who  have  completed  their 
service  in  the  First  Reserves  " ;  and  (4)  Service  in 
the  Territorial  Army  for  the  remaining  years  by  those 
who  have  completed  the  preceding  term.  But  the  last 
three  services  are  merely  nominal,  as  the  First  and 
Second  Reserves  and  the  Territorial  Army  are  ordi- 
narily called  out  only  for  drill  once  a  year  and  are 

1  Quotations  from  Regulations. 


148         A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mobilized,  in  order, "  in  time  of  war  or  of  emergency." 
And,  by  a  special  arrangement,  the  actual  service  in 
barracks  may  be  only  2  years. 

A  very  thorough  method  of  drafting  carries  into 
effect  these  provisions,  and  would  make  more  than 
200,000  young  men  annually  liable  to  service.  But, 
as  this  is  a  much  larger  number  than  the  government 
could  possibly  care  for,  or  would  need  in  times  of 
peace,  there  is  a  "  sweeping  system  of  exemptions " 
that  brings  the  number  of  conscripts  down  within 
practical  limits.  This  system  takes  into  account 
physical  conditions,  educational  courses,  individual 
and  family  necessities,  official  duties,  business  re- 
quirements, etc.  Even  then  the  number  of  those 
available  who  pass  the  examination  is  too  large,  so 
that  it  is  reduced  by  lot.  Those  who  are  finally  en- 
rolled are  divided  up  among  the  various  lines  of 
service  according  to  physique,  former  occupation  and 
attainments.  "  Conscripts  for  active  naval  service 
shall  be  selected  from  youths  belonging  to  the  sea- 
coast  or  insular  districts."  The  term  of  active  service 
is  computed  from  December  1  of  each  year ;  so  that 
the  days  just  preceding  or  following  that  day  are 
busy  ones  for  those  who  are  either  giving  new  con- 
scripts a  fine  send-off  or  welcoming  home  those  whose 
terms  have  expired. 

Japan  is  divided,  for  military  purposes,  into  eight- 
een districts,  each  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  division. 
The  headquarters  of  these  districts  are  located  at 
Tokyo,  Sendai,  Nagoya,  Osaka,  Hiroshima,  Kumamo- 


JAPAN"  AS  A  WOELD  POWER  149 

to,  Asahigawa,  etc,  etc.  There  is  also  the  Imperial 
Guard,  with  headquarters,  of  course,  at  Tokyo :  they 
are  to  be  distinguished  from  other  soldiers  by  having 
a  red  instead  of  a  yellow  band  around  the  cap,  and 
are  "  a  picked  corps,"  who  present  a  very  fine  appear- 
ance. The  war-footing  of  the  Japanese  army  exceeds 
500,000  men,  and  its  peace -footing  is  almost  200,000  : 
these  figures  take  account  only  of  combatants.  The 
discipline,  courage,  and  endurance  of  the  Japanese 
army  have  been  clearly  exhibited  side  by  side  with 
the  troops  of  Occidental  nations  in  China,  and  have 
suffered  naught  by  comparison.  The  army  has  been 
called  "  the  most  formidable  mobile  land  force  in  the 
Far  East,  indeed  in  the  whole  of  Asia,"  and  "  the 
best  army  in  the  world,  for  its  size."  And  the  re- 
markable manner  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the 
service  cooperate  and  smoothly  carry  out  the  general 
plans  has  won  the  admiration  of  capable  critics.^ 

The  guns  for  the  artillery  service  used  to  be  pur- 
chased abroad,  but  are  now  chiefly  manufactured  in 
Osaka.  There  is  an  excellent  arsenal  in  the  Koishi- 
kawa  District  of  Tokyo ;  it  is  on  part  of  the  site  of  the 
magnificent  yashiki  (mansion)  of  the  Prince  of  Mito, 
whose  beautiful  garden  still  remains  a  delight  to  all 
visitors.  This  arsenal  is  where  the  once  famous 
Murata  rifle  was  formerly  manufactured  ;  but  that 
has  been  superseded  by  the  "  30th  Year "  (of  Meiji) 
rifle;   and   both   of    these   are   Japanese   inventions. 

1  For  statistics  and  other  information  concerning  the  army  and 
the  navy,  see  Appendix. 


150   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  arsenal  is  also  turning  out  ammunition  at  the 
ordinary  rate  of  a  million  rounds  a  day. 

According  to  the  Constitution,  the  Emperor  "has 
the  supreme  command  of  the  army  and  the  navy  " ; 
and  under  him  come  the  Minister  of  War,  the  actual 
Commander-in-Chief,  the  Chief  of  Staff,  the  generals 
and  other  officers  and  officials  in  order.  The  Em- 
peror is  not  expected  to  take  command  in  person; 
but  often  one  of  the  Imperial  Princes  will  act  as 
Commander-in-Chief  in  the  field.  There  are  now 
only  two  living  Field-Marshals,  Marquis  Yamagata 
and  Marquis  Oyama.  There  are  various  schools  for 
educating  and  training  the  officers  of  the  army  and 
the  navy. 

As  Japan  is  entirely  an  insular  nation,  the  impor- 
tance of  her  navy  cannot  be  over-estimated.  Even 
before  the  war  with  China,  the  Japanese  navy  had 
been  rapidly  growing ;  and  it  showed  its  marked  ef- 
ficiency in  the  battles  of  the  Yalu  and  Wei-hai-wei 
(1894,  1895).  The  'post-bellum  plans  for  expansion 
have,  moreover,  emphasized  the  value  to  Japan  of 
sea-power;  and  the  programme  of  naval  expansion, 
in  spite  of  increased  burdens  of  taxation,  has  met 
comparatively  little  opposition.  For  purposes  of  ad- 
ministration, the  coast  of  Japan  is  divided  into  five 
naval  districts,  each  with  one  fort  which  is  a  first- 
class  naval  station.  These  stations  are  Yokosuka, 
Kure,  Saseho,  Maizuru,  and  (to  be  established)  Muro- 
ran.  The  navy  at  present  includes  battleships,  cruis- 
ers, ships  for  coast  defence,  gunboats,  torpedo  boats, 


MILITARY   LEADERS    OF    NEW   JAPAN 
FIELD-MARSHAL   OYAMA   AND   FIELD-MARSHAL  YAMAGATA 


JAPAN  AS  A  WORLD  POWER  151 

torpedo  catchers,  and  despatch  ships.  Of  the  first 
four  kinds  there  are  two  or  three  classes  in  each; 
and  of  battleships  there  are  nine  first-class  ones  of 
more  than  15,000  tons  each.  The  organization  of  the 
navy  is  similar  to  that  of  the  army :  below  the  Em- 
peror, who  is  nominally  in  supreme  command,  come 
the  Minister  of  the  Navy,  the  actual  Commander- 
in-Chief,  the  Chief  of  Staff,  the  admirals,  etc. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  two  or  three  points 
emphasized  by  Mr.  Arthur  Diosy.^  The  first  is  that 
"  Nelson's  own  plan,  as  vahd  to-day  as  it  was  in  his 
time,"  has  been  carried  out  in  the  types  of  vessels 
built  for  the  Japanese  fleet.  "  The  main  idea  prevail- 
ing in  their  selection  is  the  defence  of  the  national 
interests  by  offensive  operations  against  the  enemy's 
fleets,"  but  "  at  no  very  great  distance  from  the  base 
of  operations  at  home."  The  warships  of  Japan, 
therefore,  are  not  required  to  devote  so  much  space 
to  the  storage  of  coal  and  other  supplies  for  long 
voyages,  and  can  utilize  more  space  for  guns  and  re- 
serve ammunition,  or  can  be  built  smaller  and  "  han- 
dier." It  is  in  this  way  that  "they  are  among  the 
swiftest  of  all  the  fighting  ships  afloat." 

The  second  point,  which  is  related  to  the  first,  is 
that  Japan  ''stands  in  the  foremost  rank  as  a  naval 
power,"  not  merely  on  account  of  the  number  and 
fighting  strength  of  her  ships,  the  efficiency  of  their 
officers  and  crews,  and  the  perfection  of  the  naval 
organization,  but  also  on  account  of  the  well-equipped 

1  "  The  New  Far  East,"  chap.  vii. 


152   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

dockyards  and  arsenals  in  convenient  locations,  and 
the  abundant  supply  of  excellent  coal  in  easy  reach. 

The  third  point  concerns  what  Diosy  calls  the 
"Blue- jacket  Spirit,"  a  " scarcely  definable  something  ^^ 
that  is  hard  to  describe  in  words,  but  that  shines  forth 
in  every  word  and  deed  of  the  officer,  the  sailor, 
the  marine,  —  the  esprit  de  corps  of  the  personnel  of 
the  Japanese  navy.  This  spirit  he  finds  only  in  the 
British,  Japanese,  and  United  States  navies. 

And  we  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  the  same 
writer's  paragraph  of  summary  as  follows :  — 

"  Japan  possesses  all  the  elements  of  Sea-Power : 
swift,  powerful  ships,  adapted  to  the  work  they  are 
intended  for,  numerous  good  harbors,  excellent  coal 
in  abundance,  capital  facilities  for  the  repair  of  her 
vessels,  and  the  necessary  plant,  constantly  augmented 
and  improved,  for  building  new  ones.  Her  naval  or- 
ganization is  wise  and  efficient,  her  administrative  ser- 
vices are  thorough  and  honest;  her  naval  officers  are 
gallant,  dashing,  and  scientifically  trained,  and  the  arma- 
ment they  control  is  of  the  latest  and  best  pattern. 
Strong  in  ships,  strong  in  guns,  Japan  is  stronger  still  in 
the  factor  without  which  ships  and  guns  are  useless  — 
'the  Man  behind  the  Gun.' "  ^ 

Ten  years  ago  it  was  improper  to  speak  of  Japan 
as  a  world  power ;  it  was  then  fitting  to  treat  of  her, 
as  Norman  did  in  one  chapter  of  his  "  Real  Japan," 
under  the  caption  of  "  Japan  as  an  Eastern  Power." 
But,  as  already  pointed  out,  it  was  her  overwhelming 

1  "Any  foreign  power  that  should  venture  to  attack  Japan  in 
her  own  waters,  would  be  strangely  advised."  —  Chamberlain. 


JAPAN  AS  A  WORLD  POWER  153 

defeat  of  China  that  at  least  expedited  her  formal 
and  nominal  recognition  in  the  comity  of  nations. 
The  new  treaties  which  formulated  this  recognition 
went  into  effect  in  1899,  from  which  date  it  may  be 
eminently  proper  to  begin  a  seventh  period,^  that  of 
"Cosmopolitanism,"  in  the  history  of  New  Japan. 
And  by  Japan's  successes  in  the  second  war  with 
China  arising  out  of  the  Boxer  troubles,  she  con- 
firmed her  claim  to  recognition  as  a  world  power ; 
and  this  recognition  was  completed  through  the 
Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  of  1902.  Not  many  years 
ago  the  ideal  was  still  such  a  narrow  theme  as  "  The 
Japan  of  the  Japanese  "  ;  then  the  vision  widened  out 
so  as  to  include  "  The  Japan  of  Asia  " ;  but  now  the 
horizon  is  unlimited  and  extends  to  "  The  Japan  of 

,  the  World."  Indeed,'^  the  Japanese  have  outgrown 
"Native  Japan,"  and  even  "Asiatic  Japan,"  into 
"Cosmopolitan  Japan."  They  are  interested,  not 
only  in  national,  but  also  international,  problems. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  complete 
recognition  of  Japan  as  a  world  power  was  mani- 
fested in  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance.     This  is  the 

•  greatest  political  event  of  1902,^  so  far  as  concerns 
directly  the  future  of  the  Orient  and  indirectly  the 
affairs  of  the  Occident.  This  convention  between 
Great  Britain  and  Japan  caused  profound  surprise 
and  widespread  rejoicing,  and  in  Japan  particularly 
it  was  the  occasion  for  numerous  feasts,  even  in 
various  provincial  localities,  where  more  or  less  pro- 

1  See  p.  104.  2  Renewed  in  1906  and  1911. 


154        A  HANDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

fuse  self-gratulation  was  the  order  of  the  day.  But 
it  is  now  possible  to  take  a  calmer  view  of  the  sit- 
uation and  to  make  a  more  judicial  estimate  of  the 
importance  of  the  alliance. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  this 
formal  alliance  is  only  the  natural  outcome  of  a 
community  of  interests  in  the  Far  East,  and  is  the 
natural  result  of  practical  cooperation  for  some  time 
past.     As  Count  Okuma  put  it,  they  (Great  Britain 

^  and  Japan)  have  been  allies  in  effect  for  some  years ;  . 

^they  are  now  allies  in  name.  Indeed,  for  several 
years  past  this  alliance  has  existed  in  spirit,  and  it 
has  now  merely  become  a  public  acknowledgment 
of  sympathy  and  similar  aims  in  policy  in  the  Far 
East.  This  alliance,  then,  is  not  artificial  or  com- 
pulsory, but  natural,  spontaneous,  and  voluntary.        • 

The  second  point  to  notice  is  that  the  Anglo- 
Japanese  Alliance  includes  the  greatest  power  each 
of  the  Occident  and  of  the  Orient.  This  alliance  is 
also  the  combination  of  two  of  the  greatest  naval 
powers,  as  well  as  two  great  military  powers  of  the 
world.  It  would  seem  likely,  therefore,  as  a  promi- 
nent Japanese  expressed  it,  "  that  there  is  no  power  • 
or  combination  of  powers  that  could  make  head 
against  this  union  in  the  Far  East ;  the  attempt  would 
be  like  spitting  at  a  tiger."  The  Anglo-Japanese  * 
Alliance  is,  therefore,  a  guarantee,  of  the  very  first 
quality,  of  peace  in  the  Orient,  and  of  just  dealings 
with  China  and  Korea. 

Another  important  point  in  connection  with  this 


JAPAN  AS  A  WORLD  POWER  155 

alliance  is  the  fact  that  herein  Great  Britain  has 
abandoned,  has  broken  to  pieces,  her  traditional  pol- 
icy of  "  splendid  isolation."  For  many  decades  she 
has  not  been  in  the  habit  of  contracting  alliances 
with  other  powers  in  carrying  out  plans  to  advanced 
her  own  interests.  The  fact,  therefore,  that  in  this 
case  she  has  seen  fit  to  depart  from  her  usual  policy 
is  a  positive  indication  that  the  situation  in  the  Far 
East  was  one  of  imminent  peril  and  demanded  un- 
usual precaution.  It  is  a  proof  that  Russian  aggres- 
sions were  no  mere  phantoms,  but  were  terribly  real 
and  threatening. 

And  the  fact  that,  when  Great  Britain  broke  her 
policy  of  grand  isolation,  it  was  to  enter  into  alliance 
with  an  Oriental  rather  than  an  Occidental  power, 
is  also  one  of  great  significance.  It  proves  more 
effectively  than  folios  of  verbal  argument,  and  speaks 
out  more  loudly  than  a  thousand  tongues  could  tell, 
the  present  satisfactory  status  of  Japan.  The  in- 
significant, "half -civilized"  country  of  a  few  years 
ago  is  now  "  on  the  same  lotus-blossom  "  with  Great 
Britain.  That  little  island-empire  of  the  Orient  is 
now  but  fifty  years  out  of  her  own  practically  com- 
plete isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  world;  she  is 
only  thirty  years  out  of  feudalism ;  she  has  been 
only  a  little  more  than  a  decade  in  constitutionalism 
and  parliamentary  government,  and  she  has  been  only 
a  few  years  in  the  comity  of  nations  by  virtue  of 
treaties  on  terms  of  equality ;  nevertheless,  she  has 
become  the  political  partner  of  that  immense  island- 


156   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

empire  which  stretches  in  all  directions,  and  encircles 
the  globe  with  the  drum-beat  of  her  garrisons.  The 
huge  empire  on  whose  possessions  the  sun  never  sets 
has  taken  as  its  ally  the  small  empire  of  the  rising 
•  sun! 

This  recognition  of  the  status  of  New  Japan  has 
been,  of  course,  a  matter  of  great  pride  and  rejoicing 
to  that  nation  and  therefore  a  source  of  encourage- 
ment to  continue  steadfast  in  the  paths  of  progress 
along  which  she  has  been  moving  so  rapidly.  ^  It 
has  likewise  been  recognized  that  this  alliance  im- 
poses great  responsibilities  upon  Japan,  if  she  would 
maintain  her  new  position.^  These  responsibilities 
are  along  not  only  military,  naval,  political,  and 
commercial  lines,  but  also  along  social,  moral,  and 
religious  lines.  The  new  alliance  means  that  licen- 
tiousness, dishonesty,  and  other  vices  should  not  be 
tolerated,  and  that  ignorance,  superstition,  and  idol- 
atry should  not  be  allowed  to  thrive  among  a  people 
in  alliance  with  such  a  progressively  Christian  nation 
as  Great  Britain.  In  other  words,  this  alliance  should 
hasten  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Japan. 

But  this  alliance  means  much  to  Christianity,  not 
merely  in  Japan,  but  over  all  the  Orient.     For  the 

1  "  Japan,  geographically  to  the  mighty  continent  of  Asia  what 
Great  Britain  is  to  the  continent  of  Europe ;  Japan,  an  island 
people  with-«ll  the  strength,  mental  and  physical,  that  is  the  heri- 
tage of  a  nation  cradled  on  the  sea ;  Japan,  by  the  necessities  of 
her  environment  compelled  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  sea- 
power  ;  Japan,  in  short,  the  Britain  of  the  Orient.  "  —  Didst. 

3  The  first  alliance  of  a  white  nation  and  a  yellow  nation. 


»       >> 


STATESMEN  OF  NEW  JAPAN 

COUNT  OKUMA,  MARQUIS  INOUYE,  COUNT  ITAGAKI, 

MARQUIS  MATSUKATA 


JAPAN  AS  A  WORLD  POWER      167 

prime  objects  of  the  alliance  are  the  independence  ^ 
of  Korea  and  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire; 
and  the  prime  effect  of  the  alliance  is  peace  in  the 
Orient.  This  means  that  Russian  aggressions  in 
China  and  Korea  will  be,  already  have  been,  con- 
siderably checked,  and  that  Anglo-Saxon  and  Jap- 
anese influences  will  be  paramount  in  those  countries. 
And  all  this  means  that  Christian  missionary  work 
will  be  practically  unhindered,  unless  it  be  by  local 
and  spasmodic  prejudice;  and  that  the  word  will 
have  freer  course  and  be  glorified.  The  alliance 
of  the  first  nation  of  Christendom  with  a  largely 
Christianized  nation  like  Japan  cannot  fail  to  Chris- 
tianize the  Far  East. 

Finally,  one  significant  phase  of  the  Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance  is  the  fact  that,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
it  includes  the  United  States  of  America,  which  may 
be  called  a  "  silent  partner."  It  is  well  known  that 
the  convention  was  shown  at  Washington  before  it 
was  promulgated,  and  that  it  was  heartily  approved 
by  our  government.  Practically,  therefore,  it  is,  in 
a  very  broad  sense,  an  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance. 
Certainly  our  interests  in  the  Far  East  have  been 
and  are  identical  with  those  of  Great  Britain  and 
Japan;  and  all  our  "moral  influence,"  at  least, 
should  be  exerted  toward  the  purposes  of  that  con- 
vention. Indeed,  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  should 
mean  the  union  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  with  Japan  to  maintain  in  the  Orient  the 
"  open  door,"  not  merely  of  trade   and  commerce, 


158   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

but  of  all  social,  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious 
reforms;  the  open  door,  not  of  material  civilization 
only,  but  also  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.^ 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"The  Real  Japan"  (Norman),  chaps,  v.,  xiii. ;  "Advance 
Japan"  (Morris),  chap,  xiii.;  ''The  New  Far  East"  (Diosy), 
especially  chap.  vii. ;  "  Heroic  Japan  "  (Eastlake  and  Yamada)  ; 
"The  Awakening  of  the  East"  (Leroy-Beaulieu),  chap,  ix; 
and  "Japan  in  Transition  "  (Ransome),  chap.  xv. ;  "Japan  To- 
day "  (Scherer),  chap,  xi.;  "The  Real  Triumph  of  Japan" 
(Seaman);  "Every  Day  Japan"  (Lloyd);  "Dai  Nippon" 
(Dyer),  chaps,  vi.,  xvi.,  and  xvii.;  and  "  The  Imperial  Japanese 
Navy ''  (Janes). 

1  Several  paragraphs  are  here  republished,  by  permission,  from 
"  The  Standard,"  Chicago. 


CHAPTER  XII 
LEGAL    JAPAN 

Outline  op  Topics:  Justice  in  Old  Japan;  new  codes;  list  of 
same ;  crimes  and  punishments  ;  convicts  ;  police  ;  arrest ;  trials  ; 
courts;  judiciary;  prisons;  legalized  prostitution;  crusade  against 
social  evil;  rescue  homes,  etc. — Registration.  —  Taxation.  —  For- 
eigners under  Japanese  law ;  restrictions  upon  them.  —  Leasing 
land.  —  Mines.  —  Railways.  —  Banking,' insurance,  etc. ;  kinds  of  cor- 
porations ;  foreign  associations ;  Japanese  corporations.  —  Foreign- 
ers in   business.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  difference  between  Old  Japan  and  New 
Japan  is  quite  clearly  evident  when  one 
comes  to  the  study  of  law  and  jurispru- 
dence. It  would  be  very  misleading  to  affirm  that 
the  administration  of  justice  was  a  farce ;  and  yet  so- 
called  legal  decisions  were  too  often  arbitrary  and 
tyrannical.  The  feudal  lords  were  too  much  inclined 
to  visit  summary  and  cruel  punishment  on  slight  pre- 
text ;  and  altogether  too  few  were  the  men  like  Ooka, 
the  justice  and  wisdom  of  whose  decisions  won  for 
him  the  title  of  "  Japanese  Solomon.''  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  was  in  Old  Japan,  as  Wigmore  has 
abundantly  shown,^  "  a  legal  system,  a  body  of  clear 
and  consistent  rules,  a  collection  of  statutes  and  of 
binding  precedents."     The    chief   characteristics   of 

1  See  his  voluminous  work  in  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan,  vol.  xx.,  Supplement. 


160        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  justice  under  the  old  regime,  as  indicated  by 
Wigmore,  were  the  following :  (1)  Making  justice  "per- 
sonal, not  impersonal,"  by  balancing  "  the  benefits 
and  disadvantages  of  a  given  course,  not  for  all  time 
in  a  fixed  rule,  but  anew  in  each  instance,"  and  thus 
''to  sacrifice  legal  principle  to  present  expediency"; 

(2)  the  feudal  spirit,  especially  in  criminal  law,  as 
illustrated  by  the  use  of  torture,  humiliating  forms 
of  procedure,  and  awfully  severe  punishments;  and 

(3)  the  attainment  of  justice,  "  not  so  much  by  the 
aid  of  the  law  as  by  mutual  consent,"  by  means  of 
definite  customs,  applied,  however,  '*  through  arbitra- 
tion and  concession,"  so  that  there  was  "  a  universal 
resort  to  arbitration  and  compromise  as  a  primary 
means  of  settling  disputes,"  and  only  a  dernier  ressort 
to  the  process  of  law.  These  characteristics  should 
be  noticed,  not  merely  on  account  of  their  historical 
value,  but  in  explanation  of  certain  traits  still  prom- 
inent even  in  New  Japan. 

But  Modern  Japan  is  pretty  well  equipped  with  a 
system  of  new  codes,  based  on  European  models,  yet 
showing  some  modifications  to  suit  Japan's  peculiar 
needs.  This  codification  along  Western  lines  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  conservatives,  who  insisted 
that  national  codes,  "  interpreting  national  needs," 
should  be  naturally  developed  in  due  course  of  time. 
But  this  opposition  was  overcome  by  the  demands 
for  treaty  revision  and  the  recognition  of  Japan  in 
the  comity  of  nations ;  for  Occidental  powers  would 
not  remove  their   extra-territorial   jurisdiction   and 


LEGAL  JAPAN  161 

leave  their  nationals  to  the  mercy  of  Japanese  courts, 
unless  the  laws  were  codified  according  to  Western 
models. 

A  list  of  the  new  codes  is  taken,  with  slight  modi- 
fications, from  Chamberlain's  "  Things  Japanese," 
which  has  been  especially  helpful  in  the  preparation 
of  this  chapter. 

The  new  codes  resulting  from  the  legislative  ac- 
tivity of  the  present  reign  are :  (1)  the  Criminal  Code 
and  the  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure,  drafted  by 
Monsieur  Boissonade,  on  the  basis  of  the  Code 
Napoleon,  with  modifications  suggested  by  the  old 
Japanese  Criminal  Law ;  these  were  published  in 
1880,  and  came  into  force  in  1882 ;  the  Code  of 
Criminal  Procedure  was,  however,  revised  in  1890, 
in  order  that  it  might  be  uniform  with  the  Code  of 
Civil  Procedure,  according  to  the  provisions  of  (2) 
the  Law  of  the  Organization  of  the  Judicial  Courts, 
promulgated  in  the  month  of  February,  1890,  and  put 
into  force  on  November  1  of  the  same  year ;  (3)  the 
Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  which  went  into  effect  at 
once ;  (4)  the  Civil  Code,  and  (5)  the  Commercial 
Code,  which  were  put  into  force  in  1898 ;  and  (6) 
divers  statutes  on  miscellaneous  subjects.^ 

There  are,  according  to  the  Japanese  Criminal 
Code,  three  kinds  of  crimes,  of  two  degrees,  major 

1  These  new  codes  are  available  in  English,  as  follows:  The 
Civil  Code,  by  Gubbins ;  the  Civil  Code  and  the  Commercial  Code, 
by  Lonholm  and  Terry ;  the  Commercial  Code,  the  Criminal  Code, 
and  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  in  official  translations, 

11 


162   A  HANDBOOK  OP  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  minor.  The  three  kinds  are:  (1)  against  the 
State  or  the  Imperial  Family,  and  in  violation  of  the 
public  credit,  policy,  peace,  health,  etc. ;  (2)  against 
person  and  property ;  and  (3)  police  offences.  Major 
crimes  are  punishable  by  (1)  death  by  hanging ;  (2) 
deportation  with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  life  or  for 
a  term  of  years;  and  (3)  imprisonment  on  similar 
terms.  Minor  crimes  are  punishable  by  fines  and 
confinement  with  or  without  hard  labor.  What  are 
called  police  offences  are  punishable  by  small  fines 
running  from  5  sen  to  2  yen,  and  by  detention  for  from 
1  to  10  days  without  hard  labor.  In  cases  of  cap- 
ital punishment  no  public  visitors,  only  the  necessary 
officials,  are  allowed  to  be  present.  Deportation  is 
usually  made  to  the  northern  island  of  Yezo,  to  work 
generally  in  the  mines. 

Convicts  are  easily  recognizable  by  their  "  crushed 
strawberry  "  uniforms,  and  are  often  seen  in  public ; 
for  convict  labor,  in  the  case  both  of  individuals 
and  of  gangs,  is  utilized  by  the  authorities.  In 
fact,  all  prisoners,  according  to  their  abilities,  are 
required  to  labor  nine  hours  each  day  in  some 
kind  of  employment,  either  inside  or  outside  of  the 
prison. 

The  Japanese  policeman  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting "characters"  of  his  nation.  He  is  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  samurai,  who,  in  the  old  regime,  took 
upon  themselves  the  duty  of  enforcing  justice.  He 
possesses  all  the  pomp  and  dignity  of  his  knightly 
predecessor;  and  he,  too,  carries  a  sword.     All  the 


LEGAL  JAPAN  163 

people,  from  children  up  to  grandfather,  stand  iii 
complete  awe  of  him.  And  well  may  they  be  afraid ; 
for  in  his  dealings,  at  least  with  the  common  people, 
he  manifests  no  gentleness,  but  by  his  dictatorial 
manners  compels  the  utmost  respect  for  himself  and 
the  law.  He  seldom  has  to  use  force  in  making  an 
arrest,  unless  in  the  cases  of  the  professional  crim- 
inals; and  he  does  not  usually  find  it  necessary  to 
use  handcuffs,  as  a  strong  cord  will  serve  his  purpose 
on  ordinary  occasions.  He  is  more  easily  to  be  found, 
when  wanted,  than  the  proverbial  American  police- 
man. He  is  poorly  paid,  but  richly  faithful,  and  in 
every  sense  of  the  words  upholds  the  dignity  of  the 
law.  His  figure  clad  in  white  or  blue  uniform,  re- 
spectively, for  five  and  seven  months  of  the  year,  is 
familiar  and  welcome  to  foreigners,  because  to  them 
he  is  invariably  kind  and  courteous. 

When  a  person  suspected  of  some  crime  or  mis- 
demeanor has  been  arrested  by  the  police,  he  is  taken 
to  the  nearest  detention  station  and  put  through  a 
preliminary  investigation  before  the  judge  of  the 
local  court.  As  this  may  be  delayed,  and  bail  al- 
lowed or  not  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  accused 
persons  are  sometimes  kept  in  detention  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  No  counsel  is  allowed  at  this 
secret  preliminary  examination  before  a  kind  of  jus- 
tice of  peace.  The  latter,  from  the  evidence,  either 
dismisses  the  prisoner,  or  imposes  a  suitable  punish- 
ment, or  remands  him  for  trial  before  the  proper 
court. 


164        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

A  trial  in  Japan,  as  in  France,  is  of  the  "  inquisi- 
torial "  type,  and  is  conducted  by  the  judge  (or  judges) 
alone.  "All  questions  by  counsel  must  be  put 
through  him.  Counsel  do  not  so  much  defend  their 
clients  as  represent  them."  Witnesses  are  sworn,  so 
to  speak,  by  "  a  solemn  asseveration,"  without  "  any 
religious  sanction " ;  and  this  takes  the  form  of  a 
written  document  "duly  signed  and  sealed."  The 
government  is  represented  by  the  public  procurator, 
who  seems  to  combine  in  one  person  the  duties  of 
inspector,  grand  jury,  and  prosecuting  attorney. 
Hearsay  evidence  is  admitted ;  and  circumstantial 
evidence  has  no  small  influence. 

Japanese  courts  are  organized  according  to  the 
French  system,  with  some  modifications  along  Ger- 
man lines.  They  are  four  in  kind,  from  the  Local 
Court,  through  the  District  or  Provincial  Court, 
and  the  Court  of  Appeal,  up  to  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  local  courts  have  jurisdiction  over  police  of- 
fences and  some  minor  crimes ;  the  district  courts 
conduct  preliminary  investigations  and  have  jurisdic- 
tion over  crimes ;  the  courts  of  appeal  hear  new  trials ; 
while  the  supreme  court  hears  criminal  appeals  on 
matters  of  law.  Japanese  courts  are  very  solemn 
places,  with  strict  regulations  as  to  costume,  cere- 
mony, and  conduct. 

The  Japanese  judiciary  is,  by  this  time,  pretty 
much  weeded  out  of  the  old  judges  with  antiquated 
notions,  and  consists  very  largely  of  comparatively 
young  men,   educated  in   the   modern  systems.     A 


COURT   BUILDINGS,   TOKYO,   AND    THE    MINT,   OSAKA 


LEGAL  JAPAN  165 

graduate  of  the  Law  College  of  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity may  attain  a  seat  on  the  bench  after  three 
years  as  a  probationary  judge,  and  one  examination ; 
other  persons  must  pass  two  severe  examinations. 
The  salary  of  an  ordinary  judge  is  small;  and  just 
after  the  Imperial  Diet  in  1901  had  failed  to  pass  a 
bill  for  increase  of  their  salaries,  a  large  number  went 
on  a  strike!  Judges  are  appointed  for  life  on  good 
behavior. 

The  management  of  the  Japanese  prison  system 
will  bear  favorable  comparison  with  that  of  any 
Western  country ;  for  it  has  undergone  considerable 
improvement  of  recent  years,  and  is  quite  up  to  date. 
It  is  rather  amusing  to  recall  the  fact  that,  before  the 
new  treaties  came  into  effect,  by  which  foreigners 
were  to  fall  under  Japanese  jurisdiction,  considerable 
anxiety  was  manifested  lest  American  criminals,  for 
instance,  should  suffer  inconvenience  in  Japanese 
jails  I  And  it  was  a  singular  coincidence  that  the 
first  crime  committed  after  the  midnight  when  those 
treaties  went  into  effect  was  by  an  American,  who 
committed  a  triple  murder  in  Yokohama.  But  the 
trial  and  treatment  of  Miller  showed  to  the  world 
that  Japanese  law  and  prisons  were  entirely  un- 
worthy of  the  captious  criticism  that  had  been 
passed  upon  them.  With  commodious  buildings,  ex- 
tensive grounds,  ventilated  rooms,  gardens  and  shops 
for  laborers,  hospitals  for  the  sick,  bath  privileges, 
wholesome  food,  reading  matter  under  certain  limita- 
tions, rewards  for  good  behavior,  part  pay  for  labor, 


166   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

the  Japanese  prison,  especially  the  largest  ones  at 
Tokyo,  Yokohama,  and  other  important  cities,  must 
be  acknowledged  to  hold  high  rank  among  the  refor- 
matory institutions  of  the  world. 

This  is,  perhaps,  as  appropriate  a  place  as  any  to 
introduce  one  of  the  peculiar  legal  institutions  of 
Japan,  that  is,  the  public  brothel.  As  is  well  known, 
the  social  evil  is  licensed,  and  therefore  legalized,  in 
Japan ;  it  is  not  merely  not  condemned,  but  actually 
condoned.  In  Old  Japan  the  young  girl  willing  to 
sell  herself  to  a  life  of  shame  to  relieve  the  poverty 
and  distress  of  her  parents  would  be  considered  vir- 
tuous, because  filial  piety  was  regarded  as  a  higher 
virtue  than  personal  chastity.  Nor  would  the  parents 
who  accepted  such  relief  be  severely  condemned, 
because  the  welfare  of  the  family  was  more  important 
than  the  condition  of  the  individual.  And  even  in 
Modern  Japan,  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  it  is  no  crime 
to  visit  a  licensed  house  of  ill-fame ;  and  visitors  to 
such  places  hand  in  their  cards  and  have  their  names 
and  addresses  registered,  just  as  if  they  were  attend- 
ing an  ordinary  public  function.  Nay  more,  an  ex- 
President  of  the  Imperial  University,  and  one  of  the 
leading  philosophers  and  educators  of  the  day,  has 
come  out  in  public  print  and  affirmed  that,  from  the 
standpoint  of  science  and  philosophy,  he  can  see  no 
evil  in  prostitution  per  se.  And  when  such  licensed 
brothels  are  allowed  near  Buddhist  temples  and 
Shinto  shrines,  it  would  appear  as  if  those  cults 
were  really  culpable   not  to  protest.     Indeed,  when 


LEGAL  JAPAN  167 

the  patriotic  youth  of  New  Japan,  wishing  to  pay 
homage  at  the  most  famous  shrines  of  Ise,  are  com- 
pelled to  reach  the  spot  by  passing  along  a  road 
lined  on  both  sides  with  legalized  brothels,  it  looks 
as  if  official  encouragement  to  impurity  was  offered, 
or  at  least  temptation  was  presented,  to  the  rising 
generation. 

But  Christianity  has  always  taught,  in  Japan  as 
elsewhere,  that  prostitution,  whether  licensed  or  un- 
licensed, is  a  sin,  and  has  sought  by  various  means 
to  check  this  terrible  evil.  Formerly  no  girl  was 
able  to  escape  from  her  awful  slavery,  no  matter  how 
much  she  desired  to  free  herself,  except  by  permission 
of  the  keeper  I  But  within  the  past  few  years  a 
campaign  has  been  waged  that  has  greatly  weakened 
the  tyranny  of  the  abominable  system.  A  test  case, 
bitterly  fought  at  every  point,  was  carried  up  through 
all  the  courts  to  the  highest,  and  finally  won  by 
those  who  contended  that  a  girl  could  not  be  kept  in 
a  brothel  against  her  will.  Another  test  case,  carried 
up  to  the  Supreme  Court,  and  decided  in  favor  of 
the  keepers,  to  the  effect  that  the  financial  obliga- 
tions of  the  girls  are  valid  in  law,  has  given  the 
reform  movement  a  temporary  set-back.  But,  in 
spite  of  all  obstacles  and  opposition,  the  crusade 
against  the  social  evil  has  achieved  a  large  measure 
of  success.  About  14,000  girls  have  been  set  free ; 
the  number  of  applicants  for  admission,  as  well  as  of 
unlicensed  prostitutes,  has  diminished  ;  the  number  of 
visitors  has  so  largely  decreased,  that  some  brothels 


168   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

have  been  compelled  to  go  into  bankruptcy  and  close 
up  the  business ;  public  opinion  has  been  aroused, 
and  the  moral  tone  of  society  has  been  elevated  and 
purified. 

We  must  not  fail  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  destructive  work  of  this  crusade  has  been  sup- 
plemented by  the  constructive  work  of  establishing 
"  rescue  homes  "  under  the  auspices  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  the  Salvation  Army, 
and  other  Christian  organizations.  There  is  also  a 
very  large  and  successful  Home  for  ex-Convicts, 
conducted  in  Tokyo  by  Mr.  Hara,  a  Christian  min- 
ister, often  called  the  "Howard  of  Japan."  This 
title  might  also  be  given  to  Mr.  Tomeoka,  another 
Christian  minister,  who  has  made  a  special  study 
of  penology  and  prison  management,  and  is  con- 
ducting both  a  "reform  school"  and  a  "school  for 
prison  officials." 

Inasmuch  as  Japan  is  under  a  paternal  government, 
the  system  of  registration  is  carefully  and  thor- 
oughly employed.  It  is  practically  ubiquitous  and 
universal;  and  it  is  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as  to 
be  vexatious  to  Anglo-Saxons,  especially  to  Americans. 
But  to  a  Japanese  the  seki  (register)  is  all  important ; 
it  is  the  certificate  of  his  (or  her)  very  existence, 
age,  status,  occupation,  home  (permanent  or  tem- 
porary), and  almost  of  the  character  of  the  individual. 
In  case  of  change  of  residence,  this  biographical 
sketch  must  be  transferred  from  one  locality  to 
another;  and  even  in  case  of  travel,  or  presence  in 


LEGAL  JAPAN  169 

a  hotel  for  a  single  night  only,  the  guest  must  give 
an  account  of  himself  to  the  proprietor  according 
to  certain  blanks  supplied  by  the  police.  A  for- 
eigner is  concerned  with  the  following  information 
by  Dr.  Masujima,  the  eminent  lawyer  and  jurist  of 
Tokyo;  — 

"  A  foreign  householder  who  intends  to  stay  for  more 
than  nine  days  at  one  place  in  Japan,  must,  within  ten 
days  of  his  arrival,  report  to  the  police  regarding  him- 
self and  persons  in  his  company,  stating  full  particulars, 
ages,  profession  or  other  occupation,  the  place  from 
which  they  last  came,  their  home  domicile,  and  the 
relationship  of  those  persons  with  him ;  as  well  as  the 
full  address  of  the  house  in  which  he  lives,  counter- 
signed by  the  landlord,  any  changes  in  such  information 
to  be  treated  in  like  manner  from  time  to  time." 

The  subject  of  taxation  is  one  which  may  well  be 
mentioned  in  this  chapter,  although  it  is  scarcely 
profitable  to  devote  much  space  thereto.  In  Old  Japan 
taxes  were  paid  in  kind,  chiefly  with  rice  ;  but  in 
New  Japan  they  are  payable  only  with  cash.  The 
system  of  taxation  is  rather  complicated  and  oppres- 
sive ;  and  yet  the  people  stoically  endure  their  bur- 
dens without  indulging  in  the  pastime  of  agrarian 
riots.  The  land-tax  of  3^  per  cent  of  the  assessed 
value  of  the  land  in  the  case  of  rural  lands  and  5 
per  cent  in  the  case  of  urban  lands  is  a  very  impor- 
tant source  of  revenue,  and  has  always  been  the  cause 
of  great  trouble  in  political  circles.  Other  taxes  are 
the  business  tax,  the  income  tax,  the  house  tax,  etc. 


170   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN" 

The  last  mentioned  is  the  one  which  foreigners 
claimed  to  be  exempt  from  paying,  but  the  Japanese 
government  claimed  to  have  the  authority  to  levy; 
the  question  has  been  submitted  to  arbitration,  and  is 
still  sub  judice.  Under  tlie  new  treaties  Japan  has 
the  right  to  levy  duties  on  imports,  and  thereby 
secures  considerable  revenue.  In  the  list  of  articles 
exempt  from  duties  we  find  books,  maps,  charts, 
bullion,  coins,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  jute,  rice,  wool, 
plants,  trees,  shrubs,  etc. ;  and  in  the  list  of  pro- 
hibited articles  opium  and  adulterations  are  most 
prominent.^ 

Inasmuch  as  the  status  of  foreigners  under  Japan- 
ese law  is  a  subject  of  growing  practical  importance, 
we  make  extracts  from  an  address  delivered  by  Dr. 
Masujima  before  the  New  York  State  Bar  Associa- 
tion in  January,  1903 :  — 

"The  cases  in  which  foreigners  are  restricted  in  the 
enjoyment  of  private  rights,  are  the  ownership  of  land 
or  Japanese  ships,  the  right  to  work  mines,  to  own 
shares  in  the  Bank  of  Japan  or  the  Yokohama  Specie 
Bank,  to  be  members  or  brokers  of  exchanges,  to  engage 
in  emigration  business,  or  to  receive  bounties  for  navi- 
gation or  ship  building.  Any  company  must,  in  order 
to  own  Japanese  ships,  have  its  principal  office  in  Japan, 
and  all  members  in  case  of  a  Gomel  Kaisha,  all  unlim- 
ited liability  members  in  case  of  either  a  Goshi  Kaisha 
or  Kabushiki  Goshi  Kaisha^  and  all  directors  in  case 
of    a    limited    company,  must    be    Japanese    subjects. 

1  See  "  Japan  in  the  Beginning  of  the  Twentieth  Century." 


LEGAL  JAPAN  171 

Otherwise  foreigners  are  as  free  as  the  Japanese  to 
own  shares  in  any  Japanese  commercial  companies 
organized  by  themselves  alone,  or  in  combination  with 
the  Japanese,  or  to  engage  in  any  manufacture  or  other 
commercial  operations. 

"  Foreigners  may  hold  a  long  lease  of  land  to  plant 
trees  or  erect  permanent  structures,  which  may  be 
arranged  for  an  indefinite  term  almost  perpetual,  such 
as  one  thousand  years,  or  as  long  as  may  be  agreed 
upon.  Such  a  holding  is  called  superficies,  and  it  is 
very  much  like  a  long  English  lease,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  trees  or  buildings  do  not,  at  the 
end  of  the  term,  revert  to  the  landlord,  his  right  being 
only  that  of  pre-emption  at  current  valuation.  The 
most  advisable  way  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  actual 
and  permanent  holding  of  land  is  for  a  foreigner  to 
buy  land  himself  through  a  Japanese,  as  bare  trustee, 
and  to  secure  its  superficies  for  the  period  of  as  long 
a  term  as  may  be  desirable  for  his  purposes. 

"  Although  no  foreigners  may  work  mines  individually, 
they  may  be  taken  on  mortgage,  and  a  company  regis- 
tered as  a  Japanese  organization  is  entitled  to  engage 
in  mining;  the  theory  is  that  foreigners  as  members 
merge  themselves  in  the  entity  of  a  Japanese  cor- 
poration, although  it  may  be  composed  of  foreigners 
exclusively. 

"No  railway  or  tramway  business  is  allowed  to  be 
carried  on  unless  by  a  limited  company  and  a  con- 
cession for  such  purpose  has  to  be  secured  from  the 
proper  authorities.  No  such  railway  can  be  pledged, 
but  it  may  be  hypothecated.  Japanese  pledge  corre- 
sponds to  English  mortgage,  diifering  therefrom  in  that 
immediate  transfer  of  possession  and  holding  the  pledged 
property  absolutely  is  essential.  Hypothecation  does 
not  carry  possession  nor  the  right  of  entry.     This  con- 


172   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

dition  of  Japanese  railway  law  has  not  satisfied  cap« 
italists  as  not  affording  sufficient  security  to  induce 
investment  by  them.  There  has  been  some  attempt 
to  have  this  law  altered,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
accomplished. 

"Banking,  insurance,  shipping,  and  all  other  kinds 
of  commercial  business  may  be  carried  on  in  Japan 
by  foreign  companies  by  observing  the  treaties  and 
certain  regulations,  such  as  the  registration  of  their 
branch  offices,  their  representatives  or  other  matters 
prescribed  by  law. 

"  There  are  two  kinds  of  civil  corporations,  the  one 
consisting  of  persons  associated  together,  and  the  other 
an  estate  of  aggregate  property  somewhat  like  a  trust 
in  English  law,  formed  or  established  for  the  purpose 
of  religious  worship,  teaching,  art,  charity,  education, 
or  any  other  object  of  public  benefit,  not  aiming  at  the 
making  of  a  profit.  Such  a  corporation  can  come  in 
existence  only  with  the  permission  of  the  competent 
authorities,  while  Japanese  commercial  corporations 
may  be  formed  without  it. 

"  No  foreign  association  of  persons  or  trust  property 
is  accorded  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  are  enjoyed 
by  similar  Japanese  corporations;  such  a  foreign  cor- 
poration has  no  standing  whatsoever  in  the  Japanese 
courts,  and  the  only  way  in  which  it  could  obtain 
protection  would  be  to  appear  in  the  individual  names 
of  its  members,  just  as  used  once  to  be  the  case  in 
partnership  actions.  Purely  technical  evidence  must 
be  procured  and  filed  before  any  legal  proceeding  can 
be  initiated,  and  the  best  interests  of  the  corporation 
might  easily  be  jeopardized.  Some  foreign  religious 
societies  have  sought  to  get  themselves  incorporated 
as  Japanese  corporations,  but  failed.  Japan  has  no 
State  religion,  and  she  is  absolutely  impartial  in  reli- 


STATESMEN    OF   NEW   JAPAN 
OKUBO,   SAIGO,   KIDO,   AND   PRINCE    IWAKURA 


LEGAL  JAPAN  173 

gious  matters.  Any  religious  body  so  applying  must  be 
and  show  itself  to  be  a  purely  Japanese  institution, 
free  from  all  control  of  any  sort  from  its  corresponding 
religious  bodies  in  foreign  countries.  Any  legal  con- 
nection whatever  between  the  home  body  and  Japanese 
organization  is  a  bar  to  such  purpose.^ 

"  A  Japanese  corporation  has  almost  as  large  privileges 
as  a  Japanese  subject.  It  can  own  land  and  exercise 
other  rights  not  accorded  to  individual  foreigners.  A 
corporation  so  organized  may  contain  in  its  ranks  for- 
eign members,  but  it  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to 
be  under  any  danger  of  control  of  any  kind  from  outside. 
Even  after  incorporation,  the  charter  will  be  forfeited 
should  the  policy  of  the  Japanese  Government  be  at 
any  time  prejudiced  by  the  conduct  of  a  corporation 
so  sanctioned. 

"  If  foreigners  wish  to  do  business  in  combination  with 
the  Japanese,  the  best  way  would  be  to  form  a  Gdshi 
Kaisha  or  limited   partnership,  they  themselves  carry- 
ing unlimited  liability.     To  control  a  Kabushiki  Kaisha^ 
or  limited  company,  they  should  own  more  than  half 
the  amount  of  capital,  either  by  holding  themselves  or 
through  their  own  nominees,  and  shares  should  be  tied 
up  so  as  not  to  allow  their  transfer  without  the  consent 
of  the  board  of  directors.    The  advantage  of  any  busi- 
ness being  organized  as  a  Japanese  corporation  consists, 
as  the  law  now  stands,  in  owning  land  and  having  the 
full  rights  of  Japanese  subjects." 

It  should  be  added  here  that  many  prominent 
Japanese  continue  to  urge  that  foreigners  be  allowed 
to  own  land,  possibly  under  certain  restrictions ;,  and 

1  But  missionaries,  as  individuals,  are'able  to  unite  in  organizing 
a  Japanese  corporation. 


174   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

that  such  a  privilege  is  quite  likely  to  be  granted 
before  very  long. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Suitable  works  of  reference  on  this  chapter  are  scarce. 
"  The  Yankees  of  the  East "  (Curtis),  chap,  viii.,  and  "  The 
Real  Japan  "  (Norman),  chaps,  iii.  and  xi.,  furnish  some  mate- 
rial. Dr.  Masujima's  papers  in  the  Transactions  Asiatic  Society 
of  Japan  on  "The  Japanese  Legal  Seal"  (vol.  xvii.)  and 
"Modern  Japanese  Legal  Institutions"  (vol.  xviii.)  are  quite 
instructive  ;  and  so  is  Longford's  "  Summary  of  the  Japanese 
Penal  Codes  "  in  vol.  v.  Some  specific  references  have  already 
been  made  in  footnotes. 

"Every  Day  Japan"  (Lloyd)  contains  interesting  material 
on  these  topics,  Hozumi's  "Lectures  on  the  New  Japanese 
Civil  Code "  and  "  Ancestor  Worship  and  Japanese  Law"  are 
verv  valuable. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN » 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Not  Western  "  new  woman,"  but  abstract, 
legal  new  woman  in  Japan.  —  Woman  in  old  r€gime;  wife  in  old 
regime;  lack  of  "home";  woman  anciently  honored.  —  Legal  status 
in  Old  Japan,  in  New  Japan ;  independent  person ;  marriage ; 
right  of  marriage;  husband  and  wife. — Divorce,  —  by  arrange- 
ment and  judicial.  —  Concubinage;  child  of  a  concubine.  —  Pros- 
pects of  new  woman ;  openings  for  labor.  —  The  "  New  Great 
Learning  for  Women."  —  Enlarged  educational  advantages ;  new 
schools.  —  Women  in  business.  —  The  Empress  and  the  Crown 
Princess.  —  The  woman  question ;  further  needs ;  women  and 
Christianity.  —  Bibliography. 

A  NY  intention  of  using  the  term  "  new  woman  '* 
LjL  in  a  jocose  or  satirical  way  is  disclaimed  at 
-^  -^  the  outset.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  refer  at 
all  to  such  a  creature  as  that  called  "new  woman  " 
in  the  Occident;  for  it  has  not  yet  appeared  to  any 
great  extent  among  the  Japanese.  It  may  be  true, 
in  some  cases,  that  the  modernized  Japanese  woman 
is  "without  gentleness  or  refinement,"  and  may  be 
called  a  "  parody  of  a  man  "  or  a  "  sickening  sort  of 
person."  But,  as  the  "  Jiji  Shimpo  "  explains,  "the 
process  of  the  new  woman's  evolution  may  be  disfig- 
ured by  some  accident " ;  and  "  the  new  woman  stands 

1  Portions  of  this  chapter  are  reprinted  by  permission  from  the 
**  American  Journal  of  Sociology,"  March,  1903. 


176   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

out  with  objectionable  salience  because  her  environ- 
ment is  so  colorless." 

It  is  desired,  in  the  first  instance,  to  consider,  not 
the  new  woman  in  the  concrete,  in  the  flesh,  but 
the  abstract,  legal  new  woman  that  has  been  created 
by  the  new  Civil  Code  of  Japan.  In  looking  through 
the  translation  of  that  document  by  Mr.  Gubbins, 
we  have  been  deeply  impressed  with  the  possibilities 
which  lie  before  the  women  of  New  Japan  through 
the  rights  and  privileges  vouchsafed  to  them  under 
that  code. 

In  Old  Japan,  as  stated  in  a  preceding  chapter,^ 
the  constitution  of  the  family  was  practically  that 
of  an  empire,  in  which  all  other  members  thereof 
were  subject  to  the  despotic  authority  of  the  master. 
A  Japanese  woman  was  subject  to  the  "  three  obedi- 
ences ":  as  a  maiden,  to  her  father;  as  a  wife,  to  her 
husband  and  his  parents ;  ^  as  a  widow,  to  her  oldest 
son,  whether  real  or  only  adopted.  A  daughter  might 
even  be  called  upon,  for  the  sake  of  her  parents,  to 
sacrifice  her  honor  and  enter  a  brothel ;  and  she  was 
still  considered  virtuous,  because  personal  chastity 
was  a  lower  virtue  than  filial  piety. 

A  Japanese,  like  a  Grecian,  wife  was  to  her  hus- 
band a  faithful  slave,  "something  better  than  his 
dog,  a  little  dearer  than  his  horse  " ;  she  was  both  a 
drudge  and  a  plaything,  to  be  cast  aside  as  capriciously 

1  Chap.  iv.  on  "  People,  Houses,  Food,  Dress." 
*  The  Japanese  mother-in-law  is  an  awful  tyrant ;  but  it  is  always 
the  wife's  mother-in-law. 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  177 

as  a  child  throws  away  a  toy.  She  must  tamely 
submit  to  having  concubines  brought,  perhaps,  right 
into  the  house  at  the  will  of  her  lord ;  or  she  herself 
might,  under  slight  and  flimsy  pretexts,  be  divorced 
and  sent  back  to  her  parents.  The  following  "  seven 
reasons  for  divorce  "  were  laid  down  by  a  celebrated 
Japanese  moralist:  disobedience  to  father-in-law  or 
mother-in-law;  barrenness;  lewdness;  jealousy;  lep- 
rosy or  any  like  foul  disease;  garrulousness  and 
prattling;  stealing. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  misnomer  to  speak  of  "  Japan- 
ese homes  "  of  the  old  regime^  in  the  sense  in  which 
we  use  that  little  word  "home"  with  all  its  depth 
and  wealth  of  meaning  and  its  associated  thoughts  of 
"  love  "  and  "  sympathy. "  Indeed,  the  word  "  home  " 
cannot  be  perfectly  translated  into  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage, and  is  generally  transferred  bodily  with  the 
pronunciation  homu.  And  one  of  the  far-reaching 
results  of  Christian  mission  work  in  Japan  has  been 
the  introduction  of  the  idea  and  the  ideal  of  the 
Christian  home. 

It  should,  however,  be  constantly  kept  in  mind 
that  in  the  most  ancient  times  women  were  highly 
esteemed,  and  even  "used  to  play  an  important  part 
on  the  political  stage."  In  Shinto  the  central  object 
of  adoration  is  the  sun,  which  is  worshipped  as  a 
goddess.  There  have  been  seated  on  the  imperial 
throne  of  Japan  eight  empresses,  one  of  whom  is 
famous  for  her  martial  valor  and  military  exploits. 
It  was  when  Buddhism  became  powerful  that  Hin- 

12 


178   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

doo  and  Chinese  conceptions  of  woman's  position 
moulded  public  opinion  and  thus  eventually  changed 
the  manners,  customs,  and  laws  of  Japan  so  as  to 
relegate  woman  to  an  abnormally  inferior  position. 
As  only  one  striking  example  out  of  many  possible 
illustrations  of  the  relative  positions  of  man  and 
woman,  we  note  that,  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  the 
husband,  the  law  prescribed  mourning  garments  for 
thirteen  months  and  abstinence  from  impurity  for 
fifty  days ;  but,  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  the  wife, 
mourning  garments  for  three  months  and  abstinence 
for  twenty  days  were  sufficient. 

Mr.  Gubbins  in  the  introduction  to  Part  II.  of  his 
translation  of  the  Civil  Code,  writes  as  follows :  — 

"The  legal  position  of  women  in  Japan  before  the 
commencement  of  modern  legislative  reform  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  offences  came  under  different 
categories  according  to  their  commission  by  the  wife 
against  the  husband,  or  by  the  husband  against  the  wife, 
and  by  the  curious  anomaly  that,  while  the  husband 
stood  in  the  first  degree  of  relationship  to  his  wife,  the 
latter  stood  to  him  only  in  the  second.^  The  disabilities 
under  which  a  woman  formerly  labored  shut  her  out 
from  the  exercise  of  almost  all  rights.  She  could  not 
inherit  or  own  property  in  her  own  name,  she  could  not 
become  the  head  of  a  family,  she  could  not  adopt,  and 
she  could  not  be  the  guardian  of  her  child.  The  maxim, 
mulier  est  finis  familiae^  was  as  true  in  Japan  as  in  Rome, 
though  its  observance  may  have  been  less  strict,  owing 
to  the  greater  frequency  of  adoption. 

^  Since  1882  they  have  been  upon  the  same  basis. 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  179 

"In  no  respect  has  modern  progress  in  Japan  made 
greater  strides  than  in  the  improvement  of  the  position 
of  women.  Though  she  still  labors  under  certain  dis- 
abilities, a  woman  can  now  become  the  head  of  a  family 
and  exercise  authority  as  such ;  she  can  inherit  and 
own  property  and  manage  it  herself;  she  can  exercise 
parental  authority  ;  if  single,  or  a  widow,  she  can  adopt ; 
she  is  one  of  the  parties  to  adoption  effected  by  her  hus- 
band, and  her  consent  in  addition  to  that  of  her  husband 
is  necessary  to  the  adoption  of  her  child  by  another  per- 
son; she  can  act  as  guardian  or  curator;  and  she  has  a 
voice  in  family  councils."^ 

Moreover,  although  it  is  true  that  for  the  per- 
formance of  certain  acts  (Art.  14)  a  wife  must  ob- 
tain her  husband's  permission,  and  that  a  wife's  acts 
may  be  annulled  by  her  husband  (Art.  120),  yet  it 
is  explicitly  stated  that  "  a  wife  who  has  been  per- 
mitted to  engage  in  one  or  more  businesses  possesses 
in  regard  thereto  the  capacity  of  an  independent 
person." 

But  let  us  look  a  little  more  particularly  into  the 
provisions  relating  to  marriage,  divorce,  etc.  The 
marriageable  age  is  17  full  years  for  men  and  15 
full  years  for  women.  Marriage  takes  effect  when 
notice  of  the  fact  is  given  to  a  registrar,  by  both 
parties  with  two  witnesses.  From  this  it  will  appear 
that  the  ceremony  is  a  "  purely  social  function,  having 
no  connection  whatsoever  with  law  beyond  the  some- 
what remote  contingency  of  its  being  adducible  as 

1  These  are  composed  of  a  large  circle  of  relatives,  and  exercise 
autocratic  influence  in  most  important  questions. 


180        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

evidence  of  a  marriage  having  taken  place."  And 
here  is  where  some  Japanese  Christians  make  an 
unfortunate  and  sometimes  serious  mistake,  in  think- 
ing that  the  ceremony  by  a  minister  of  the  gospel  is 
sufficient  and  registration  is  a  matter  of  convenience. 
Without  registration  a  marriage  is  not  legal. 

The  right  of  marriage  is  not  free,  except  to  the 
head  of  a  family.^  All  other  persons,  whatever  their 
ages,  can  marry  only  with  the  consent  of  the  head 
of  his  or  her  family.  Men  under  30  and  women 
under  25  cannot  marry  without  the  consent  of  the 
parents;  and  minors  in  some  cases  must  obtain  the 
consent  of  the  guardian  or  even  of  a  family  council. 

In  Art.  790  it  is  stipulated  that  "  a  husband  and 
wife  are  mutually  bound  to  support  one  another." 
A  husband  manages  the  property  of  his  wife,  unless 
he  is  unable  to  do  so,  when  she  manages  it  herself. 
"  With  regard  to  daily  household  matters,  a  wife  is 
regarded  as  her  husband's  agent." 

There  are  two  ways  of  effecting  divorce :  either  by 
arrangement,  which  is  effected  in  a  similar  way  to 
marriage  —  that  is,  by  simply  having  the  registra- 
tion of  marriage  cancelled  —  or  by  judicial  divorce, 
which  may  be  granted  on  several  grounds  specified 
in  the  Code.  But  divorce  by  arrangement  cannot 
be  effected  by  persons  under  25  years  of  age,  without 
consent  of  the  person  or  persons  by  whose  consent 

1  The  word  "  family  "  is  here  and  hereinafter  used  in  a  technical 
aenee,  peculiar  to  Japan,  of  a  group  of  the  same  surname.  In  Old 
Japan  the  family  was  the  social  unit. 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  181 

marriage  was  effected.  And  if  the  persons  who 
effect  this  kind  of  divorce  fail  to  determine  who  is 
to  have  the  custody  of  the  children,  they  belong  to 
the  father;  but  "in  cases  where  the  father  leaves  the 
family  owing  to  divorce,  the  custody  of  the  children 
belongs  to  the  mother,"  evidently  because  she  re- 
mains in  the  family.  In  other  words,  children  are 
chattels  of  the  family. 

The  grounds  on  which  judicial  divorce  is  granted 
include  bigamy,  adultery  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  the 
husband's  receiving  a  criminal  sentence  for  an  offence 
against  morality,  cruel  treatment  or  grave  insult 
such  as  to  render  living  together  unbearable,  deser- 
tion with  evil  intent,  cruel  treatment  or  gross  insult 
of  or  by  lineal  ascendants. 

The  new  Civil  Code  indirectly  sanctions  concu- 
binage by  stipulating  (in  Art.  827)  that  "an  ille- 
gitimate child  may  be  recognized  by  the  father  or 
mother"  by  giving  notice  to  a  registrar.  Such  a 
child  is  called  shoshi,  but  is  not  legitimized.  It  is, 
however,  stipulated  (in  Art.  728)  that  between  a 
wife  and  a  shoshi  "  the  same  relationship  as  that  be- 
tween parent  and  child  is  established."  That  seems 
clearly  enough  to  mean  that  a  wife  must  accept  a 
concubine's  child  as  if  it  were  her  own,  in  case  the 
father  "recognizes"  it.  This  would  appear  to  be 
little,  if  any,  advance  over  the  old  regime^  where 
"the  wife  of  the  father,"  as  she  was  technically 
called,  frequently  had  to  accept  as  her  own  child 
that  of  a  concubine. 


182   A  HANDBOOK  OP  MODERN  JAPAN 

Mr.  Gubbins  makes  the  following  explanation  of 
shoshi :  — 

"This  term  illustrates  the  transitionary  phase  through 
which  Japanese  law  is  passing.  Japanese  dictionaries 
de^ne  shoshi  as  the  child  of  a  concubine,  and  this,  so  long 
as  concubinage  was  sanctioned  by  law,  and  the  question 
of  legitimacy  never  arose,  was  the  accepted  meaning  of 
the  term.  The  law  of  Japan,  which,  in  the  course  of  its 
development  on  western  lines,  has  come  to  accept  the 
principle  of  legitimacy,  and  to  admit  of  the  legitimiza- 
tion of  children  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  their 
parents,  now  recognizes  an  intermediate  stage  between 
legitimacy  and  illegitimacy." 

Such  is  the  general  outline  of  the  legal  status  of 
woman  according  to  the  new  Civil  Code.  It  will 
undoubtedly  be  most  interesting  to  watch  the  gradual 
evolution  of  a  new  woman  in  Japan  as  the  outcome 
of  this  legislation.  It  remains  to  be  seen  how  far 
the  social  status  of  woman  will  be  improved.  It  is 
not  at  all  likely  that  her  actual  position  will  be  im- 
mediately advanced  in  any  great  degree.  It  is  prob- 
able that  custom  will  continue,  for  a  while  at  least, 
to  wield  a  mightier  influence  than  the  Code;  and 
that,  as  Mr.  Gubbins  remarks,  "the  present  transi- 
tional condition  of  Japanese  society  may  favor  a  rule 
being  honored  more  in  the  breach  than  in  the  ob- 
servance." But  it  will  probably  not  be  long  before 
here  and  there  certain  women  will  claim  the  rights 
accorded  by  law  ^  and  will  find  a  corresponding  im- 

1  "  A  Japanese  judge  has  ruled  in  a  certain  case  that  the  wife  is 
not  obliged  *  to  obey  the  unreasonable  demands  of  her  husband.' 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  183 

provement  in  their  social  condition;  and  thus  the 
general  position  of  the  Japanese  woman  will  grad- 
ually be  advanced. 

And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  status  of  woman  in 
Japan  is  improving  in  practice  no  less  than  in  theory, 
especially  in  the  new  openings  for  work  that  render 
her  more  or  less  independent  of  male  support.  For 
instance,  although  the  work  of  weaving,  formerly 
carried  on  by  women  in  the  homes,  is  now  largely 
transferred  to  factories,  with  modern  machinery, 
there  is  an  increasing  demand  for  female  hands. 
This  is  also  true  in  cotton  mills,  match  factories, 
tobacco  shops,  and  many  other  such  places  of  work. 
Telephone  exchanges,  post-offices,  railway  ticket 
offices,  printing  offices,  also  find  girls  and  women 
deft  and  skilful.  In  hospitals  and  schools,  too,  the 
Japanese  young  woman  is  finding  her  sphere.  She 
is  likewise  showing  her  skill  and  taste  in  both  artistic 
and  literary  employments.  But  in  Japan,  as  else- 
where, this  drift  into  industrial  and  other  occupations 
is  producing  a  scarcity  of  servants  for  housework. 

Just  as  Kaibara's  "  Onna  Daigaku  "  (Great  Learn- 
ing for  Women)  was  the  standard  for  female  edu- 
cation  under  the   old   regime^   so   New  Japan  most 

In  this  particular  instance  the  man  of  the  house  had  told  the  wife 
to  perform  some  disagreeable  manual  labor  for  him  ;  she  refused, 
and  he  promptly  divorced  her.  The  wife  appealed,  and  her  plea 
was  upheld  by  the  court.  A  very  important  precedent  has  been 
established,  and  this  decision  may  lead  to  a  revolution  in  Japanese 
domestic  life,  in  which,  thanks  to  the  courage  of  one  woman  and 
the  enlightening  effect  of  American  ideals,  the  Japanese  wife  need 
no  longer  be  her  husband's  slave."  —  Congregational  Work. 


184   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

appropriately  has  a  "  Shin  [New]  Onna-Daigaku, "  by 
Mr.  Fukuzawa,  the  famous  educator  and  writer. 
The  following  summary  thereof  is  from  the  "  Japan 

Mail":  — 

"The  ^ Sekai-no-Nihon ^  reviews  at  some  length  Mr. 
Fukuzawa's  series  of  articles  entitled  *  Shin  Onna-Dai- 
gaku/  which  have  now  appeared  in  book  form.  We 
give  in  a  brief  form  the  gist  of  the  reviewer's  remarks. 
Mr.  Fukuzawa's  object  in  writing  so  much  on  the  sub- 
ject of  women's  position  in  modern  times  is  to  endeavor 
to  create  a  new  standard  for  women.  Hitherto  the 
teaching  of  Kaibara  Ekiken's  *  Onna  Daigaku '  has 
been  accepted  in  all  quarters.  According  to  it  woman 
occupies  a  subordinate  position,  and  must  on  no  account 
assert  her  independence  or  claim  equality  with  man. 
While  showing  the  untenableness  of  all  such  theories, 
Mr.  Fukuzawa  does  not  rush  to  an  opposite  extreme. 
He  defines  woman's  position  in  a  remarkably  common- 
sense  way.  He  would  not  have  women  attempt  to 
imitate  men.  They  have  their  own  spheres  and  should 
keep  to  them.  When  discussing  the  education  of  girls 
he  insists  on  the  necessity  of  making  a  special  point  of 
giving  them  a  thorough  drilling  in  household  duties. 
They  should  have  a  knowledge  of  cooking ;  they  should 
be  taught  how  to  make  the  most  of  money,  how  to  man- 
age servants,  &c.  Next  to  these  things  he  attaches  great 
importance  to  their  being  instructed  in  the  laws  of 
health.  Among  other  subjects  botany  is  to  be  recom- 
mended as  specially  suited  to  the  female  mind.  He 
further  argues  that  women  should  be  taught  Economy 
and  Law.  He  thinks  that  a  knowledge  of  these  subjects 
will  tend  to  develop  their  general  intelligence,  and  save 
them  from  becoming  the  creatures  of  emotion.  In  olden 
times  a  woman  carried  a  dagger  in  her  girdle  to  be  used 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  185 

as  a  last  resource.  In  modern  times  a  thoroughly  en- 
lightened mind  will  be  her  best  protection  against  the 
dangers  to  which  she  is  exposed.  With  the  tendency  to 
conceit  which  is  said  to  be  engendered  by  the  kind  of 
education  recommended,  Mr.  Fukuzawa  deals  in  his 
treatise,  arguing  that  this  tendency  can  be  rendered 
harmless  by  instruction  in  the  kind  of  demeanor  that 
best  becomes  a  woman.  .  .  .  Marriage  according  to  the 
old  methods  Mr.  Fukuzawa  condemns,  and  the  practice 
of  having  the  father-in-law  or  mother-in-law  living  with 
the  married  couple  should,  he  thinks,  be  discontinued. 
Marriage  should  be  regarded  in  a  serious  light,  and  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  it  involves  should  be  duly 
considered.  Mothers  should  take  pleasure  in  instruct- 
ing their  children,  and  should  know  enough  to  gain  their 
respect.  The  whole  system  recommended  is  based  on 
Western  life  and  thought.  This  new  Gospel  for  woman 
preached  by  a  man  who  has  spent  his  whole  life  in  advo- 
cating reform,  as  one  of  his  last  messages  to  the  nation, 
is,  says  the  '  Sekai-no-Nihon/  very  striking  and  likely 
to  effect  great  good."  ^ 

Within  the  past  decade  or  so  the  educational  ad- 
vantages for  Japanese  girls  have  very  largely  in- 
creased ;  and  the  number  of  girls  and  young  women 
availing  themselves  of  these  advantages  has  grown 
encouragingly.  There  has  been  a  marked  increase 
in  the  number  of  female  pupils  in  public  and  private, 
including  mission,  schools  of  all  grades;  and  there 
have  been  new  institutions  organized  especially  for 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  after  a  marriage  ceremony  at  one 
of  the  shrines  at  Nikkd,  the  bridegroom  and  the  bride  were  prc- 
Bented  with  a  copy  of  Mr.  Fukuzawa's  work. 


186   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

young  women,  concerning  two  of  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  speak  more  particularly. 

One  is  a  kind  of  English  normal  school  in  charge 
of  Miss  Um^  Tsuda,  herself  a  type  of  the  best  kind 
of  "new  woman"  in  Japan.  She  was  the  youngest 
of  the  first  group  of  Japanese  girls  sent  over  to  the 
United  States  in  1871  to  be  educated;  and  ever  since 
her  return  to  Japan  she  has  been  trying  to  elevate 
the  condition  of  her  sisters.  Her  school  is  intended 
primarily  to  train  young  women  to  be  efficient 
teachers,  particularly  of  English.  Another  impor- 
tant institution  is  the  University  for  Women,  opened 
in  1901  in  Tokyo,  the  first  of  its  kind  started  in 
the  first  year  of  the  new  century,  as  a  harbinger 
that  the  Twentieth  Century  in  Japan  will  be  largely 
the  women's  century. ^ 

What  the  new  woman  in  Japan  is  able  to  accom- 
plish in  business  lines  is  well  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs :  ^  — 

*'Mrs.  Asa  Hirooka,  of  Osaka,  is  well  known  in  business 
circles  as  the  actual  guiding  spirit  and  organizer  of  the 
famous  banking  firm  of  Kajiina.  A  daughter  of  the 
Mitsui  family,  she  was  married  at  the  age  of  17  to  Mr. 
Shingoro  Hirooka  of  Osaka  a  few  years  previous  to  the 
restoration.  The  Hirooka  family  was  one  of  those  cele- 
brated banking  agents  of  the  feudal  barons  who  flour- 
ished at  Osaka  during  the  Tokugawa  regime,  and,  like 
many  of  the  rest,  had  its  affairs  thrown  into  disorder 
and  was  itself  reduced  to  a  precarious  condition  by  the 
political  convulsion  of  three  decades  ago.   The  Kajimaya, 

1  See  Appendix.  *  Chicago  Daily  Record. 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  187 

under  which  style  the  Hirooka  family  conducted  its  busi- 
ness, would  certainly  have  shared  the  same  melancholy 
fate  that  overtook  so  many  of  its  compeers  had  it  not  been 
for  the  resolute  character  and  business  capacity  of  Mrs. 
Asa,  who  assumed  the  sole  direction  of  affairs,  introducing 
sweeping  changes  in  the  organization  of  the  firm,  and  in 
a  remarkably  short  space  of  time  succeeded  in  starting  it 
on  a  career  of  fresh  and  increasing  prosperity. 

"  About  twenty  years  ago  Moji,  the  present  flourishing 
centre  of  the  coal  business,  had  scarcely  come  into  exist- 
ence ;  in  other  words,  few  people  had  yet  commenced  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  development  of  coal-mining. 
In  this  venture  she  encountered  innumerable  difficulties. 
In  the  first  place,  she  had  to  overcome  the  determined 
opposition  of  the  other  members  of  the  family.  Their 
position  was,  in  fact,  so  strong  and  persistent  that  she 
had  to  engage  in  the  undertaking  entirely  on  her  own 
account  and  responsibility.  She  had  thus  to  start  afresh 
with  little  capital,  except  her  own  personal  credit,  and 
many  were  the  hardships  and  disadvantages  against 
which  she  had  to  struggle.  But  there  is  always  a  way 
where  there  is  a  will,  and  our  fair  but  indomitable  miner 
was  ultimately  rewarded  with  signal  success,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  adding  largely  to  the  capital  of  the  firm  and 
in  establishing  her  reputation  as  a  resourceful  organizer 
and  a  unique  business  woman. 

*'  All  the  collieries  in  her  possession  have  one  after 
another  been  disposed  of  at  profitable  prices,  and  just  at 
present  she  is  devoting  her  whole  attention  to  the  expan- 
sion of  the  banking  business  of  the  firm.  An  eminently 
successful  financier  aud  business  organizer,  she  is  by  no 
means  indifferent  to  interests  of  a  higher  sort.  Her- 
self well  educated,  she  takes  a  keen  interest  in  educa- 
tional matters,  especially  those  relating  to  her  own  sex, 
being  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  Mr,  Naruse^S 


188    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

scheme  for  a  university  for  girls.  By  way  of  giving 
practical  encouragement  to  the  movement  in  favor  of 
female  education,  she  already  employs  some  educated 
girls  as  clerks  at  her  banks,  and  intends  to  place  a 
new  department  which  is  about  to  be  opened  at  those 
banks  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  female 
clerks.'* 

This  chapter  would,  of  course,  be  incomplete  with- 
out a  few  words  about  the  recent  first  lady  of  the 
land  now  Empress  Dowager,  who  has  proved  herself 
to  be  in  heartiest  sympathy  with  the  ideals  of  New 
Japan.  As  she  had  no  children  of  her  own,  she 
adopted  the  entire  nation  and  completely  won  their 
love;  she  was,  indeed,  the  mother  of  millions.  She 
is  especially  interested  in  educational  and  benevo- 
lent institutions;  she  is  the  active  patron  of  the 
Peeresses'  School,  the  University  for  Women,^  the 
Red  Cross  Society,  and  other  philanthropic  enter- 
prises. In  times  of  calamity  her  purse  is  always 
opened  for  a  liberal  contribution  to  the  suffering.^ 

The  lady  now  of  special  interest  is  Empress  Sada, 
the  young  wife  of  the  new  Emperor.  She  was  born 
in  1884,  and  was  educated  in  the  Peeresses'  School 
until  her  betrothal,  when  she  was  placed  under  pri- 
vate  tutoi-s.     She  was   married   on   May   10,    1900, 

1  "  H.  M.  the  Empress  gave  a  donation  of  2,000  yen  to  the  Women's 
University  established  by  Mr.  Jinzd  Naruse.  Prince  Iwakura  and 
Marquis  Hachisuka  will  call  at  the  Imperial  Palace  in  a  day  or 
two  in  order  to  express  the  gratitude  of  the  university  for  this 
munificent  donation."  — Japafi  Times. 

2  Her  birthday  on  May  28  is  annually  obsenred  by  Christian 
women  in  special  services. 


IT.  I.   M.     THE   EMPRESS 


THE  NEW  WOMAN  IN  JAPAN  189 

and  is  the  mother  of  three  healthy  sons.     The  young 
rulers  live  a  happy  and  congenial  life. 

In  conclusion,  we  make  one  more  quotation,  from 
Miss  Bacon's  "Japanese  Girls  and  Women,"  as 
follows :  — 

*'The  woman  question  in  Japan  is  at  the  present 
moment  a  matter  of  much  consideration.  There  seems 
to  be  an  uneasy  feeling  in  the  minds  of  even  the  more 
conservative  men  that  some  change  in  the  status  of 
women  is  inevitable,  if  the  nation  wishes  to  keep  the 
pace  it  has  set  for  itself.  The  Japanese  women  of  the 
past  and  of  the  present  are  exactly  suited  to  the  posi- 
tion accorded  them  in  society,  and  any  attempt  to  alter 
'them  without  changing  their  status  only  results  in 
making  square  pegs  for  round  holes.  If  the  pegs  here- 
after are  to  be  cut  square,  the  holes  must  be  enlarged 
and  squared  to  fit  them.  The  Japanese  woman  stands 
in  no  need  of  alteration  unless  her  place  in  life  is 
somehow  enlarged,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  can  she  fill 
a  larger  place  without  additional  training.  The  men 
of  new  Japan,  to  whom  the  opinions  and  customs  of 
the  western  world  are  becoming  daily  more  familiar, 
while  they  shrink  aghast,  in  many  cases,  at  the  thought 
that  their  women  may  ever  become  like  the  forward, 
self-assertive,  half-masculine  women  of  the  West,  show 
a  growing  tendency  to  dissatisfaction  with  the  small- 
ness  and  narrowness  of  the  lives  of  their  wives  and 
daughters  —  a  growing  belief  that  better-educated  women 
would  make  better  homes,  and  that  the  ideal  home  of 
Europe  and  America  is  the  product  of  a  more  advanced 
civilization  than  that  of  Japan.  Reluctantly  in  many 
cases,  but  still  almost  universally,  it  is  admitted  that 
in  the  interest  of  the  homes,  and  for  the  sake  of  future 
generations,  something  must  be  done  to  carry  the  women 


190   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

forward  into  a  position  more  in  harmony  with  what  the 
nation  is  reaching  for  in  other  directions.  This  desire 
shows  itself  in  individual  efforts  to  improve  by  more  ad- 
vanced education  daughters  of  exceptional  promise,  and 
in  general  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition 
of  women." 

Miss  Bacon,  in  her  book,  traces  very  clearly  the 
progress  that  has  been  made  in  the  condition  of 
woman,  and  shows  how  "better  laws,  broader  edu- 
cation for  the  women,  [and]  a  change  in  public 
opinion  "  are  still  necessary.  And  she  affirms  that 
"  we  can  feel  pretty  sure  that,  when  the  people  have 
become  used  to  these  [recent]  changes  [of  the  new 
Civil  Code],  other  and  more  binding  laws  will  be 
enacted,  for  the  drift  of  enlightened  public  opinion 
seems  to  be  in  favor  of  securing  better  and  more 
firmly  established  homes." 

The  following  is  also  worthy  of  quotation :  "  It  is 
not  possible  to  understand  the  actual  progress  made 
in  Japan  in  improving  the  condition  of  women,  with- 
out some  consideration  of  the  effect  that  Christian 
thought  and  Christian  lives  have  had  on  the  thought 
and  lives  of  the  modern  Japanese." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"The  Real  Japan,"  chap.  viii. ;  "Out  of  the  Far  East" 
(Hearn),  pp.  85-125;  "The  Yankees  of  the  East,"  chaps, 
ix.,  xix. ;  "An  American  Missionary  in  Japan"  (Gk)rdon), 
chap.  XV.;  "Japan  and  her  People,"  vol.  i.  pp.  178-191;  "A 
Japanese  Interior  "  (Miss  Bacon) ;  "  Every  Day  Japan  "  (Lloyd) ; 
and,  last  and  best,  ISIiss  Bacon's  "  Japanese  Girls  and  Women," 
revised  edition,  illustrated. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

Outline  op  Topics:  Japanese  syllabary;  i-ro-ha  arrangement; 
arrangement  of  fifty-sounds;  modern  inventions.  —  Chinese  ideo- 
graphs ;  Kata-kana ;  Hira-gana ;  Kana-majiri  and  Kana-tsuki  ;  vari- 
ety in  pronunciation.  —  Japanese  elocution.  —  Japanese  syntax ; 
logic  in  linguistics ;  a  sample  sentence  ;  kind  of  language ;  topsy- 
turvy practices.  —  Ancient  literature  ;  poetry ;  naga-uta  and  tanka  ; 
hokku ;  a  poem  a  picture.  —  Characteristics  of  Japanese  poetry.  — 
Modern  literature :  newspapers ;  press  laws ;  English  journals ; 
Japanese  journals ;  magazines  and  periodicals ;  books ;  what  the 
Japanese  read ;  their  literary  taste ;  foreign  books ;  linguistic  re- 
forms, theory  and  practice.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  Japanese  language  belongs,  philologi- 
cally,  to  the  Altaic  family,  and  is  of  the 
agglutinative  type.  Practically,  it  is  musi- 
cal and  easy  to  pronounce,  but,  on  account  of  its 
long  and  involved  sentences,  difficult  to  learn.  Its 
alphabet  is  not  phonetic,  but  syllabic,  and  very  simple 
and  regular.  It  comprises  73  characters,  of  which 
5  are  duplicates  of  the  same  sounds,  so  that  there 
are  really  only  68  distinct  sounds.  As  many  of  the 
sounds,  moreover,  are  only  slight  modifications  of 
other  sounds,  they  are  represented  by  the  same  char- 
acters, with  certain  diacritical  signs  attached  (as  in 
the  case  of  Tia^  ha^  and  pa).  There  are,  consequently, 
in  common  use  only  48  distinct  characters,  which  are 


192   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

arranged   in  such  an  order  as  to  form  a  stanza  of 
poetry^  as  follows:  — 

Iro  wa  nioedo 

Chirinuru  wo  — 
Waga  yo  tare  zo 

Tsune  naran  ? 
Ui  no  oku-yama 

Kyo  koete, 
Asaki  yume  miji, 

Ei  mo  sezu. 

Which  means,  being  interpreted  by  Professor  B.  H. 
Chamberlain :  — 

"Though  gay  in  hue,  [the  blossoms]  flutter  down, 
Alas !  Who  then,  in  this  world  of  ours,  may  continue 
forever?  Crossing  to-day  the  uttermost  limits  of  phe- 
nomenal existence,  I  shall  see  no  more  fleeting  dreams, 
neither  be  any  longer  intoxicated."  In  other  words, 
"all  is  transitory  in  this  fleeting  world.  Let  us  escape 
from  its  illusions  and  vanities." 

Another  arrangement,  based  on  the  five  vowels  and 
their  combination  with  certain  consonants,  gives  fifty 
sounds,  of  which,  however,  two  or  three  are  really 
duplicates.  This  table  of  fifty  sounds  {goja-on)  is  as 
follows :  — 


a 

ka 

sa 

ta 

na 

ha 

ma 

1^ 

ra 

wa 

i 

ki 

shi 

chi 

ni 

hi 

mi 

W 

ri 

(w)i 

u 

ku 

su 

tsu 

nu 

fu 

mu 

yu 

ru 

(«-)« 

e 

ke 

se 

te 

ne 

he 

me 

{y> 

re 

(w)e 

0 

ko 

so 

to 

no 

ho 

mo 

yo 

ro 

wo 

1  Arranged  by  tlie  famous  Buddhist  priest,  Kobo  Daishi. 
*  Read  from  top  to  bottom  and  from  left  to  right 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  193 

Those  in  italics  are  duplicates ;  and  (w)i  and  (w)e^ 
though  written  with  different  characters  from  i  and  e, 
have  practically  the  same  pronunciation. 

It  will  be  seen  that  both  of  these  arrangements  are 
more  or  less  artificial;  at  least,  they  appear  to  be 
mnemonic  contrivances,  and  are  certainly  very  con- 
venient, because  they  are  flexible.  For  instance,  the 
demands  of  modern  times  and  European  languages 
for  a  V  sound  has  led  the  Japanese  to  represent  it  by 
the  simple  device  of  attaching  the  common  dia- 
critical mark  to  the  w  series.  By  a  similar  device 
they  might  utilize  the  r  series  for  I  and  the  s  series 
for  th  ! 

The  Japanese  characters,  not  difficult  or  complex 
in  formation,  are  modifications  and  simplifications  of 
Chinese  ideographs.  There  had  been  in  Japan  no 
written  language  until  after  the  introduction  of 
Chinese  civilization  in  the  sixth  century  A.  D.,  when 
Chinese  words  and  characters  were  absorbed  by  the 
wholesale.  Later,  two  systems  of  contracting  the 
complex  and  cumbersome  Chinese  ideographs  were 
invented,  and  are  still  used  to  some  extent,  indeed 
almost  entirely  by  the  uneducated  class. 

The  oldest  and  simplest  modification  is  called 
Kata-hana  (side -letters),  and  consisted  merely  in 
taking  part  of  a  Chinese  ideograph.  But,  as  these 
characters  were  separate,  and  did  not  easily  run  to- 
gether, they  have  not  been  used  much,  "except  in 
dictionaries,  books  intended  for  the  learned,  or  to 
spell  foreign  names." 

13 


194   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  next  modification  was  a  contraction  of  Chinese 
characters  into  a  running,  or  grass,  hand,  and  is 
therefore  called  Hira-gana  (plain-letters).  These 
are  all  that  the  ignorant,  especially  the  women,  can 
read. 

But  a  Japanese  who  aspires  to  the  smallest  degree 
of  education  must  be  familiar  with  many  Chinese 
characters ;  and  a  pupil  is,  in  fact,  instructed  in  that 
language  and  literature  from  the  primary  school  up 
through  the  university.  Some  books  are  written  en- 
tirely in  Chinese,  and,  of  course,  can  be  read  only  by 
the  best  educated.  But  the  commonest  method  for 
newspapers  and  books  which  are  not  intended  for  a 
limited  circulation  among  the  erudite  only,  is  the  use 
of  a  mixture  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  characters,  of 
which  the  root  forms  are  Chinese,  and  the  connec- 
tives, agglutinative  particles,  and  grammatical  end- 
ings are  Japanese ;  this  is  called  Kana-majirL  For 
even  more  general  circulation  the  Chinese  characters 
will  be  explained  by  Japanese  characters  at  the  side ; 
this  is  called  Kana-tsuki. 

This  practice  of  mixing  the  characters  of  the  two 
languages  leads  to  some  variety  in  pronunciation. 
That  is  to  say,  a  word  written  with  Chinese  ideo- 
graphs may  be  read  with  the  Japonicized  Chinese 
pronunciation  or  with  that  of  the  pure  Japanese 
word  of  which  it  is  the  equivalent.  For  instance, 
the  Chinese  characters  which  make  up  the  word 
meaning  "Japan"  are  usually  pronounced  Nippon^ 
or  Nihon^  by  the  Japanese,  but  may  also  be  read,  in 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  195 

pure  Japanese,  as  Ei-no-moto.  It  is  practically  the 
same  as  when  we  are  allowed  to  read  "etc."  either 
as  "e^  cetera  "  or  as  " and-so-f orth  "  (or  "t.  e.,"  either 
as  "  id  est "  or  as  "  that  is  "). 

In  connection  with  this  topic  of  reading,  we 
may  as  well  touch  on  the  elocutionary  element  in 
reading  by  Japanese.  Their  style  of  reading,  as 
amusing  to  us  as  ours  is  to  them,  may  be  called 
"  sing-song " :  they  rise  and  fall  by  monotones,  and, 
going  very  rapidly  without  attention  to  the  beginning 
or  the  end  of  a  sentence,  catch  breath  now  and  then 
by  a  peculiar  sucking  sound.  They  seem  to  make  no 
attempt  to  read  "with  expression,"  as  we  call  it;  and, 
when  they  come  to  study  English,  are  a  great  trial 
for  a  while  to  the  foreign  teacher ! 

The  peculiarities  of  Japanese  syntax  have  been  so 
attractively  discussed  by  Mr.  Percival  Lowell,^  that 
any  other  writer  on  that  subject  must  at  the  outset 
acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  that  author.  It  will 
be  unnecessary  in  this  chapter  to  go  into  details ;  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  mention  several  of  the  points  in 
which  Japanese  and  English  syntax  are  different. 
For  instance,  a  Japanese  noun  knows  no  distinction 
(inform)  of  gender  and  number;  a  Japanese  adjec- 
tive or  adverb  has  no  terminational  comparison;  a 
Japanese  verb  is  proof  to  the  distinctions  of  number 
and  person.  In  the  Japanese  language  the  connec- 
tives which  correspond  to  our  prepositions  are  placed 
after  their  nouns;  the  verbs  always  come  last;  our 

1  See  "The  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  pp.  78-109. 


196   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

personal  and  possessive  pronouns  are  supplanted  by- 
honorific  expressions;  and  the  definite  article,  the 
relative  pronoun,  and  the  pure  temporal  conjunc- 
tion are  lacking.  To  illustrate  the  first  point,  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  a  teacher  once  asked  a  young 
Japanese  pupil,  "Have  you  any  brothers?"  and 
received  this  answer:  "There  are  four  men;  but 
they  are  all  women."  In  the  question,  the  generic 
term  hydda%  which  may  be  applied  to  both  sexes, 
although  strictly  it  should  be  limited  to  the  male 
sex,  was  employed;  in  the  reply,  the  generic  term 
for  "man"  was  used  in  the  first  clause,  and  the 
proper  specification  was  added  in  the  second  clause. 
What  he  literally  replied  was  this :  "  There  are  [=  I 
have]  four  [such]  persons;  but  they  are  all  women." 
And,  in  Japanese, "  man, "  whether  singular,  dual,  or 
plural,  whether  single  or  married,  may  be  simply 
hito ;  and  yet  the  idea  of  "  men "  may  also  be  ex- 
pressed by  doubling  the  word  into  hito-bito;  while 
that  of  ^'  women  "  is  expressed  by  suffixing  domo  or 
tachi  to  onna  and  making  onna-tachiy  onna-domo. 

With  reference  to  language  in  general,  a  most 
patriotic  Japanese  once  proved,  to  his  own  satis- 
faction, "the  wickedness  of  foreign  nations,  not 
only  in  act  but  in  speech,"  and  illustrated  by 
the  fact  that  the  Europeans,  for  instance,  put  the 
verb  before  the  noun,  and  said,  "see  the  moon." 
But  the  Japanese  said  "moon  see,"  because,  "if 
the  moon  was  not  there  first,  you  could  not  see  it 
afterwards"! 


H.   I.   M.    THE   CIKJWN  PKINCE 


LANGUAGE  AISTD  LITERATURE  197 

Some  of  the  peculiarities  of  Japanese  sentences  are 
illustrated  in  the  following :  "  The  man  whom  I  met 
yesterday  went  to  Tokyo  by  the  nine  o'clock  train 
this  morning,"  if  translated  literally  from  Japan- 
ese, would  read:  "My  yesterday-on  met  man-as- 
for,  this  morning's  ninth-hour's  train-by  Tokyo-to 
went." 

In  short,  the  Japanese  language  is  an  involved, 
complicated,  impersonal,  neutral,  obscure,  but  withal 
a  pretty,  musical,  logical,  and  polite  tongue.  Cham- 
berlain says :  "  Japanese  is  probably  —  all  things  con- 
sidered —  the  most  difficult  language  on  the  face  of 
the  earth." 

A  Japanese  book  begins  where  an  English  book 
ends;  it  is  read  from  top  to  bottom  in  lines  running 
from  right  to  left;  and  the  "foot-notes"  are  at 
the  top  of  the  page,  while  the  reader's  mark  is 
inserted  at  the  bottom.  Books  are  always  arranged 
on  a  shelf  or  elsewhere,  with  the  first  volume  at  the 
right  hand,  or  in  horizontal  piles.  The  Japanese 
call  our  style  of  writing  "crab-writing,"  because  it 
"goes  backward"  and  across  the  page  like  a  craw- 
fish; and  the  individual  just  quoted,  claimed  to  be 
able  to  judge  of  the  hearts  of  foreigners  by  their 
writing,  "  which  was  crooked  " !  Inversion  appears 
again  in  such  expressions  as  "east-north,"  "west- 
south,"  instead  of  "northeast,"  "southwest."  The 
address  of  a  letter  runs  as  follows :  "  America,  United 
States,  Illinois  State,  Chicago  City,  Hyde  Park  Dis- 
trict, Washington  Avenue,  0000  No.,  Smith,  John, 


198   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Mr."  In  dates  the  order  of  year,  month,  day,  is  fol- 
lowed. The  word  for  roof  {yane)  means  literally 
"house-root,"  because  a  Japanese  house  is  constructed 
to  fit  the  roof,  which  is  made  first.  But,  as  words  are 
only  the  expression  of  thought,  this  contrariety  must 
be  traced  back  to  the  thoughts  and  ideas  of  Japanese, 
who,  in  so  many  other  things,  seem  to  us  as  "  topsy- 
turvy "  as  we  seem  to  them. 

Japanese  literature  of  the  old  regime  was  written 
partly  in  classical  Chinese,  partly  in  pure  Japanese, 
and  comprised  mostly  mythology,  history,  law,  poetry, 
romance,  drama,  and  Buddhist  and  Confucian  phi- 
losophy. As  we  cannot  go  into  details  on  this  sub- 
ject, so  tempting,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  few 
comments  on  Japanese  poetry,  which  is  more  original 
and  less  Chinese  than  prose.  The  Japanese  are  very 
much  addicted  to  writing  poetry;  like  Silas  Wegg, 
they  drop  off  into  poetry  on  every  possible  occasion. 
They  are,  in  one  sense,  "  born  "  poets,  and,  in  an- 
other sense,  made  poets:  jpoeta  Ja'ponicus  et  nascitur 
et  fit,  — "  The  Japanese  poet  is  both  born  and 
made."  There  are  certain  rigid  forms,  and  only  a 
few,  for  verse;  and  all  fairly  educated  Japanese 
know  those  forms.  In  school,  moreover,  they  are 
carefully  taught  the  theory  and  the  practice  of 
versification. 

Occasionally  a  Japanese  poem  will  be  rather  long, 
and  is  then  called  naga-uta  (long  poem)  ;  but  usually 
it  is  only  a  "  tiny  ode  "  of  31  syllables,  arranged  in  5 
lines  of  respectively  5,  7,  5,  7,  and  7  syllables.     The 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  199 

following  is  a  specimen  of  such  an  uta^  or  tanka,  from 
the  famous  "  Hundred  Poems  " :  — 

Kokoro-ate  ni  '*  If  it  were  my  wish 

Orobaya  oran  White  chrysanthemum  to  cull :  — 

Hatsu-shimo  no  Puzzled  by  the  frost 

Oki-madowaseru         Of  the  early  autumn  time, 
Shiragiku  no  hana.     Iperchance  might  pluck  the  flower.'^  ^ 

There  is  also  an  abbreviated  form  called  hokku, 
which  contains  only  the  17  syllables  of  the  first  3 
lines  of  the  tanka.     The  following  is  an  example :  — 

Kare-eda  ni 
U  no  tomari  keri 
Aki  no  kure. 
"  On  an  autumn  evening  a  crow  perches  on  a  withered 
branch." 

The  quaintness  and  simplicity  of  Japanese  thought 
and  expression  appear  very  clearly  in  their  poetry. 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  a  Japanese  poem  is  a 
picture  or  even  only  the  outline  of  a  picture  to  be 
filled  in  by  the  imagination.  It  may  be  merely  an 
exclamation,  without  any  logical  assertion,  like  the 
following,  written  a  thousand  years  ago:  — 

Shira-kumo  ni  "  The  moon  on  an  autumn 

Hane  uchi-kawashi  night,   making   visible   the 

Tobu  kari  no  very  number  of  wild  geese 

Kazu  sae  miyuru  flying  past  with  wings  inter- 

Aki  no  yo  no  tsuki.  crossed  in  white  clouds."  * 

1  Translation  bj  Prof.  Clay  MacCauley,  Transactions  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xxvii. 

2  From  Chamberlain's  "  Things  Japanese." 


200        A  HAliTDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  poetry  has  no  rhyme,  no  parallelism,  no 
alliteration,  no  accent;  it  is  almost  all  lyrical,  and 
abounds  in  acrostics,  anagrams,  and  palindromes. 
Its  chief  subjects  are  taken  from  nature,  and  a  poem 
may  be  evoked  by  the  simplest  thing.  Although 
Japanese  poetry  is  difficult  to  understand,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  study. 

Japanese  literature  of  the  new  regime  is  too  varied 
to  enumerate,  as  it  covers,  in  both  original  and  trans- 
lated work,  about  all  the  fields  of  modern  thought, 
as  well  as  the  fields  of  the  old  regime^  just  mentioned. 

The  development  of  newspapers  is,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  most  interesting  phases  of  the  progress  of  New 
Japan.  The  year  1902  was  the  thirtieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  establishment  of  Japanese  journalism. 
Before  that  time  small  sheets,  each  like  a  modern 
"extra,"  were  issued  to  give  account  of  a  murder  or 
an  important  event,  and  were  hawked  about  by  street- 
criers.  But  the  "Nisshin  Shinjishi,"  started  in  1872 
by  an  Englishman  named  Black,  was  the  first  attempt 
at  a  real  newspaper.  ^  Now  there  are  probably  more 
than  1,000  papers,  magazines,  etc.,  published  in  the 
empire.  The  newspapers  are  issued  daily,  and  cost 
from  25  to  50  sen  per  month.  Most  of  the  metro- 
politan papers  indulge  in  wood-cuts,  even  cartoons. 

At  first   the   press   laws   were   rigorous   and    the 

1  It  is,  however,  only  fair  to  state  that  Joseph  Heco,  who  was 
probably  the  first  naturalized  Japanese  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
claims  the  same  honor  for  his  "  Kaigai  Shimbun,"  published  in  1864 
to  give  a  summary  of  foreign  news.  See  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Jap- 
anese," vol.  ii.  pp.  63,  69. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  201 

official  censors  zealous;  so  that  a  Japanese  editor 
must  weigh  carefully  his  utterances,  and  even  then 
was  likely,  in  a  time  of  great  political  excitement,  to 
bring  upon  his  paper  the  ban  of  either  temporary  or 
total  suspension.  Some  of  the  papers  tried  to  cir- 
cumvent the  laws  by  having  an  extra  edition  issued 
under  a  different  name,  so  that  when  one  was  sus- 
pended the  other  might  continue;  and  sometimes  a 
paper  had  nominal  editors,  or  dummies,  to  suffer  the 
punishment  of  imprisonment,  while  the  real  editors, 
or  criminals,  remained  at  their  desks!  It  might  be 
added,  in  this  connection,  that  a  public  speaker  also 
was  liable  to  interruption  by  the  police  if  he  was 
considered  by  them  to  be  uttering  sentiments  subver- 
sive of  peace  and  order.  Perfect  freedom  of  speech 
and  liberty  of  the  press  do  not  now,  and  cannot  yet,  ex- 
ist in  Japan ;  but  the  restrictions  have  been  gradually 
withdrawn,  and  are  now  comparatively  small. 

Newspapers  in  foreign  languages,  most  of  them  in 
English,  are  issued  in  Yokohama,  Kobe,  Nagasaki, 
and  Tokyo.  Of  all  these,  the  "Japan  Mail,"  of 
Yokohama,  is  facile  princepSy  for  it  does  not  deal 
in  captious  criticisms  of  the  mistakes  and  sins  of 
the  Japanese,  but  is  keenly  sympathetic  with  their 
desire  for  improvement  and  progress  in  all  lines. 
The  "Japan  Times,"  of  Tokyo,  is  owned,  managed, 
and  edited  by  Japanese,  and  is  a  valuable  paper. 
Deserving  also  of  mention  are  the  "Japan  Daily 
Advertiser,"  of  Tokyo,  and  the  "Herald"  and  the 
"  Chronicle  "  of  Kobe. 


202   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

It  is  rather  a  difficult  task  to  select  from  the  ver- 
nacular newspapers  the  few  most  worthy  of  mention ; 
but  two  from  Osaka  and  six  from  Tokyo  will  suffice. 
The  "  Osaka  Asahi  Shimbun  "  is  said  to  have  the 
largest  circulation  in  the  whole  country;  and  the 
"  Osaka  Mainichi  Shimbun  "  is  well  known.  In  Tokyo 
the  most  prominent  journals  are  the  "  Jiji  Shimpo," 
the  "Nichi  Nichi  Shimbun,"  the  "Kokumin  Shim- 
bun," the  "Mainichi  Shimbun,"  and  the  "Hochi 
Shimbun."  Another  Tdkyo  paper  of  very  large 
circulation  is  the  "Yorozu  Choho."  Almost  all 
the  newspapers  of  Japan  are  morning  papers;  but, 
as  they  generally  go  to  press  early  in  the  evening 
of  the  preceding  day,  the  "news"  is  not  the  latest. 
But  very  important  events  will  always  be  published 
in  "extras  "  at  any  hour.^ 

There  are  also  magazines  galore  of  every  kind. 
Some  of  them  prove  rather  short-lived ;  but  most  of 
them  find  a  constituency,  as  each  one  seems  to  have 
its  own  field.  Probably  the  largest  and  most  auc- 
cessful  magazine  is  named  "Taiyo"  (Sun),  which 
issues  monthly  about  250  pages  of  Japanese  matter, 
with  24  pages  of  English  matter,  and  is  finely  il- 
lustrated. Its  leading  articles  by  well-known  writers 
cover  a  great  variety  of  topics.  The  "Kokumin- 
no-Tomo"  (Nation's  Friend)  is  another  excellent 
magazine,  famous  for  the  admirable  style  of  its 
contributions.  The  "Rikugo  Zasshi"  (Cosmos)  is 
philosophical    and    religious.      There   are    a    great 

1  See  also  Norman's  "  Real  Japan/'  ckap.  ii. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  203 

many  Shinto,  Buddhist,  and  Christian  weekly  and 
monthly  periodicals,  which  are  published  primarily 
for  the  edification  of  the  believers. 

"  Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end  "  in  Japan. 
Composition  is  apparently  such  an  easy  task,  and 
publishing  is  so  cheap,  that  every  person  inspired 
with  an  idea  is  tempted  to  rush  into  print.  And 
those  who  are  not  so  fortunate  as  to  be  rich  in  "  ori- 
ginal "  ideas,  have  an  inexhaustible  field  in  the  trans- 
lation of  books  from  English  and  other  Occidental 
languages;  indeed,  a  fair  living  may  be  made  in 
that  way. 

Japanese  taste  in  reading  is  illustrated  by  a  table 
accompanying  a  recent  official  report  from  the  Impe- 
rial Library  at  Tokyo.  During  a  period  of  24  days 
covered  by  the  report,  the  readers  numbered  7,770, 
and  the  books  called  for  were  classified  as  follows :  — 

Japanese  and         European 
Chinese  works.  works. 

Theology  and  religion 635  14 

Philosophy  and  education 2,368  145 

Literature  and  languages 8,038  998 

History,  biography,  geography,  travel     .     .  9,768  460 

Law,  politics,  sociology,  economy,  statistics  6,577  304 

Mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  medicine  .  9,506  388 

Engineering,  military  arts,  industries    .     .     .  4,943  205 

Miscellaneous  books 4,840  530 

The  table  will  interest  American  readers  as  show- 
ing how  large  is  the  number  of  European  works 
included.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Japanese  are 
decidedly  a  reading  people.  Even  the  "jinrikisha 
man,'*  waiting  on  the  street-corner  for  a  customer, 


204    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

is  frequently  to  be  seen  reading  a  newspaper,  maga- 
zine, or  book. 

The  leading  firm  of  booksellers  in  Japan  recently- 
asked  a  large  number  of  eminent  Japanese  men  of 
letters,  of  science,  of  business,  etc.,  to  name  their 
favorite  European  or  American  books.  The  73  an- 
swers received  have  been  published  in  a  Japan- 
ese periodical,  and  are  interesting  as  displaying 
the  literary  tastes  of  Japanese  readers  of  foreign 
literature. 

The  most  popular  work  is  Darwin's  "Origin  of 
Species,"  which  received  26  votes;  next  come 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
and  Hugo's  "Les  Miserables,"  in  the  order  named. 
Among  English  men  of  letters,  Byron  and  Tennyson 
are  the  most  popular.  The  names  of  Stevenson, 
Hardy,  Meredith,  "Mark  Twain,"  and  other  recent 
writers  are  rarely  met  with,  while  that  of  Kipling 
occurs  not  even  once.  Among  continental  writers, 
Tolstoi,  Schopenhauer,  Heine,  and  Zola  are  fre- 
quently mentioned;  and  Nietzsche's  " Zarathustra " 
is  characterized  more  than  once  as  the  greatest  work 
in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.^ 

Some  interesting  information  with  reference  to 
the  demand  for  foreign  works  in  Japan  has  been  made 
public  in  the  "  Japan  Times  "  by  a  Japanese  importer 
of  foreign  books,  and  several  items  therefrom  are  of 
interest. 

Works  relating  to  architecture  and  building,  chem- 

1  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  "  The  Dial,"  Chicago. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  205 

istry,  electricity  and  magnetism,  engineering  and  me- 
chanics, manufactures  and  industrial  arts,  metallurgy 
and  mining,  together  with  dictionaries  and  encyclo- 
paedias, enjoy  the  largest  demand.  In  chemistry, 
Remsen  is  one  of  the  popular  authors ;  in  metallurgy, 
Phillips's  work  heads  the  list;  in  electricity  and 
magnetism,  Thomson's  works  find  the  largest  num- 
ber of  purchasers ;  and  there  is  an  active  demand  for 
Taggart's  "Cotton  Spinning."  The  favorite  diction- 
ary is  "Nuttall's  Standard  Dictionary,"  of  which  the 
firm  above  named  has  already  sold  between  200,000 
and  300,000  copies!  Next  comes  "Webster's  Con- 
densed Dictionary,"  and  even  "Webster's  Un- 
abridged "  sells  at  the  rate  of  from  50  to  60  copies 
per  month.  The  "Students'  Standard  Dictionary  " 
also  sells  well. 

Works  on  scientific  subjects,  especially  new  publi- 
cations, are  in  great  demand,  and  show  the  eagerness 
of  Japanese  students  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
results  of  the  latest  investigations.  In  astronomy, 
Newcomb  and  Holden's  popular  treatise  comes  first. 
In  pedagogics,  Herbart  is  the  most  popular  author  at 
present.  In  history,  Fisher's  "  Universal  History  " 
heads  the  list;  in  general,  works  on  modern  history 
are  in  greater  demand  than  those  of  earlier  periods. 
The  greater  demand  for  language  books,  among  which 
the  Otto  series  stands  first,  may  have  been  due  to  the 
arrival  of  the  date  [1899]  of  mixed  residence.  Mathe- 
matical books  are  only  in  fair  request. 

In  medicine,  German  books  have  practically  driven 


206   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

from  the  field  works  in  other  languages.  In  politics 
and  diplomacy,  however,  French  works  are  preferred; 
Walker's  " Political  Economy,"  Jevons's  "Money,'' 
and  Bastiat's  "  Science  of  Finance  "  have  a  large 
sale.  In  law,  German  works  are  beginning  to  pre- 
dominate. Taine's  "English  Literature  "  heads  the 
list  in  works  of  that  class,  and  is  used  as  a  text-book 
or  work  of  reference  in  several  higher  institutions  of 
learning.  Of  books  on  Japan,  Griffis's  "Mikado's 
Empire  "  maintains  its  ground  as  the  favorite.  Works 
on  antiquities  and  ethnology,  elocution  and  oratory, 
theology  and  religion,  are  said  to  be  practically  de- 
void of  demand;  but  philosophical  works  find  good 
sale,  with  Herbert  Spencer  in  the  van. 

Fifty  years  ago  a  foreign  book  had  to  be  smuggled 
into  Japan  and  studied  secretly ;  and  many  an  earnest 
scholar  paid  with  his  life  the  penalty  for  desiring  a 
broad  education  through  books.  Fifty  years  ago, 
Dutch  books  were  about  the  only  ones,  except 
Chinese,  that  got  into  the  empire  even  by  smug- 
gling. Now  information  is  eagerly  sought  from  all 
quarters  of  the  globe ;  and  books  in  many  languages 
are  readable  by  Japanese.^ 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  languages,  like  poets, 
are  "bom,  not  made,"  and  that  the  changes  in  a 
language  come,  not  artificially,  but  naturally.  Inter- 
esting, therefore,  is  the  spectacle  of  an  attempt  to 
effect  a  tremendous  reform  in  a  language,  many  cen- 
turies  old,    by  legislative   enactment.     The   nation 

1  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  "  The  Dial,"  Chicago. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  20T 

which  is  making  this  apparently  foolish  and  useless 
attempt  is  Japan,  which  has  already  often  startled 
the  world  by  its  marvellous  reforms.  And  if  its 
wonderful  success  in  legislative  reforms  in  other  lines 
are  any  criterion  in  this  case,  it  will  succeed  in  ef- 
fecting much-needed  reform  in  its  language.  At  the 
sixteenth  session  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  a  sum  of  money 
was  appropriated  for  a  "  linguistic  commission.  '*  This 
was  appointed  in  the  spring  of  that  year,  has  held 
several  meetings,  and  has  already  arrived  at  some 
decisions.  It  has  been  decided,  for  instance,  that  "  a 
phonographic  script "  is  to  be  employed;  but  the  much 
discussed  question,  whether  it  shall  be  the  common 
Japanese  kana  (syllabic  characters)  or  Roman  letters, 
is  still  on  the  docket.  It  is  also  proposed  to  reduce 
the  number  of  Chinese  ideographs  in  common  use. 
Moreover,  the  differences  between  the  written  and  the 
spoken  language  are  to  be  abolished ;  and  the  formal 
epistolary  style  is  to  be  reformed.  It  has  also  been 
decided  that  the  whole  system  of  Japanese  etymology 
must  be  "  carefully  revised. "  Even  the  "  problem  of 
local  dialects  "  is  to  be  attacked,  and  "  a  standard 
dialect  fixed."  It  is  noticeable  that  the  commission 
is  not  afflicted  with  trepidity,  but  is  proceeding  with 
the  utmost  courage  to  attack  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lems. It  is  composed  of  some  of  the  most  practical 
as  well  as  the  most  scholarly  men  of  the  empire,  and 
its  work  will  be  watched  with  the  deepest  interest, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  And  the  great  changes 
already  effected  in  the  Japanese  language  since  the 


208   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

country  was  opened  are  some  warrant  for  believing 
that  this  commission  will  achieve  a  measure  of 
success.^ 

And  yet  we  understand  that  legislative  enactment 
alone  cannot  make  these  reforms  perfectly  effective ; 
but  we  are  gratified  that  intelligent  public  opinion 
will  support  these  reforms,  not  only  theoretically,  but 
also  practically.  For  the  full  fruition  of  such  reforms 
must  be  attained  through  the  schools  and  the  public 
press ;  and  the  latter  has  already  begun  to  work  along 
these  very  lines.  It  is,  indeed,  well  for  Japan  that 
her  leaders  realize  the  necessity  of  breaking  loose  from 
her  thraldom  to  Chinese  letters,  literature,  thought, 
and  ideals. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Rein's  "Japan";  "Advance  Japan"  (Morris),  chap.  xi. ; 
Knapp's  "  Feudal  and  Modern  Japan,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  i.-iii. ; 
and  "Japan  in  History,  Folk-lore  and  Art"  (Grifl&s),  pp.  76-91, 
104-107.  For  special  study  of  the  language,  Imbrie's  "  English- 
Japanese  Etymology,"  Chamberlain's  "  Hand-book  of  Colloquial 
Japanese"  and"  Moji  no  Shirube"^^  Aston's  "Grammar  of 
the  Japanese  Written  Language  "8;  and  Brinkley's  *' Un- 
abridged Japanese-English  Dictionary."*  On  the  literature, 
Aston's  "History  of  Japanese  Literature,"  entire;  see  also 
Chamberlain's  "Japanese  Epigrams"  in  Transactions  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xxx.  part  ii. 

1  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  "  The  Dial,"  Chicago. 

2  Or  "  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Japanese  Writing." 

*  Noss's  Lange's  "  Text-book  of  Colloquial  Japanese "  (1908)  is 
very  valuable. 

*  The  new  "English-Japanese  Dictionary  of  the  Spoken  Lan- 
guage" (1904)  is  indispensable. 


CHAPTER    XV 
EDUCATION 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Old-style  education ;  study  of  Dutch ; 
modern  education ;  branches  of  curricula ;  three  kinds  of  schools ; 
school  age ;  the  Imperial  Rescript ;  kindergartens ;  elementary 
schools ;  middle  schools ;  higher  schools ;  universities ;  normal 
schools ;  agricultural  schools ;  technical  schools ;  commercial 
schools ;  foreign  language  schools ;  art  and  music ;  eleemosy- 
nary institutions ;  female  education  ;  professional  schools ;  private 
schools ;  mission  schools ;  foreign  instructors  and  study  abroad ; 
teachers'  associations;  libraries;  scientific  study;  defects  of  Jap- 
anese education.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  old-style  education  was  at  first  Buddhist, 
afterwards  Confucian,  in  method  and  mat- 
ter. It  comprised  chiefly  instruction  in  the 
Japanese  and  the  Chinese  languages,  literature,  and 
history,  and  was  mostly  confined  to  the  samurai 
(knights),  or  military  class.  Female  education  con- 
sisted mainly  of  reading  and  writing  Japanese,  the 
elaborate  rules  of  etiquette,  and  "polite  accomplish- 
ments "  in  music  and  art.  All  instruction  was  given 
pretty  much  by  the  Chinese  system  of  lectures ;  and 
a  "  memoriter  "  method  of  learning  hampered  original 
investigation.  Especially  in  the  domain  of  Japanese 
history,  so  called,  on  which  rested  the  political  in- 
stitutions, skepticism  was  practically  synonymous 
with  treason. 

U 


210        A  HAm)BOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

According  to  a  Japanese  authority,  "  the  first  book 
published  [in  Japan]  on  foreign  subjects  "  was  by  the 
famous  scholar  Arai  Hakuseki  [1657-1725]  under  the 
title  "Seiyo  Kibun  "  (Notes  of  the  Western  Ocean). 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  a  few  scholars  were 
officially  commissioned  to  study  Dutch;  and  many 
others  secretly  engaged  in  the  same  pursuit.  It  was 
almost  entirely  through  the  Dutch  that,  during  the 
period  of  seclusion,  the  Japanese  obtained  their 
knowledge  of  Western  countries  and  peoples,  of 
history  and  science,  especially  of  medical  science.^ 
Several  Dutch  scholars  also  studied  Japan. 

But  since  the  opening  of  Japan  new  ideas  have 
gradually  come  to  prevail;  and  especially  since  the 
Restoration  of  1868,  education,  like  all  otJier  insti- 
tutions of  Japan,  has  had  the  methodical  and  progres- 
sive spirit  of  Western  civilization  infused  into  it. 
Foreigners,  especially  Americans,  were  called  in  to 
remodel  the  whole  system  and  to  instruct  in  the  new 
education.  Thus  in  the  various  provinces  the  system 
of  education  was  graded  and  made  harmonious  for 
the  entire  empire.  Kindergartens  have  been  estab- 
lished in  many  localities,  and  are  especially  valuable, 
because  most  mothers  are  incompetent  to  give  satis- 
factory home  instruction.  Six  is  the  age  at  which  a 
child  may  enter  the  "  elementary  school "  for  a  course 
of  eight  years ;  next  comes  the  "  middle  school  "  for 
five  years;  then  the  "higher  school "  for  two  or  three 
years,  and,  finally,  the  Imperial  Universities  at  Toky5 
1  See  chap.xxiii.  of  "Japan  in  History,  Folk-lore  and  Art"(GrifRs). 


IMPERIAL   UNIVERSITY    BUILDINGS,   TOKYO 


EDUCATION  211 

and  Ky5to,  each  with  its  various  colleges.  There  are 
also  normal  schools,  "common"  and  "higher,"  for 
the  training  of  teachers,  and  a  great  many  technical 
and  professional  schools,  public  and  private.  Mis- 
sionary schools  of  all  grades  are  doing  an  excellent 
work,  and  in  many  particulars  supplying  a  great  need. 
Co-education  prevails  only  in  the  elementary  schools ; 
and  the  higher  education  of  woman  has  been  sadly 
neglected,  but  better  provision  for  it  is  gradually  being 
made.  The  first  year  of  the  new  century  was  marked 
by  the  establishment  at  Tokyo  of  the  first  University 
for  Women.i  The  present  Emperor  attended  the 
"Nobles'  School,"  and  having  ascended  the  throne, 
becomes  the  first  Japanese  Emperor  educated  in  a 
pubHc  school;  and  the  Empress  Sada  attended  the 
Peeresses'  School. 

The  principal  branches  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  reading,  writing,  arithmetic  (Japanese 
and  foreign),  composition,  grammar,  geography,  his- 
tory, physical  exercise,  morals  (Confucian),  and 
English;  those  in  the  middle  and  higher  schools 
are  Japanese  and  Chinese  history,  composition,  lan- 
guage and  literature,  general  history,  mathematics, 
sciences,  philosophy,  morals,  physical  exercise,  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  German;  in  the  universities  the 
lines  of  study  are  varied  and  specialized.  The 
Japanese  learn  well  to  translate,  write,  and  speak 
the  modern  languages,  and  in  the  university  may 
study  Latin,   Greek,  and  Sanskrit. 

i  See  "  Chautauquan  "  for  April,  1902. 


212        A  HAKDBOOK   OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

If  we  classify  Japanese  schools  according  to  man- 
agement, there  are  three  kinds:  those  respectively 
under  the  central  government,  local  authorities,  and 
private  auspices.  Those  of  the  first  class  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Department  of  Education,  are 
mainly  special  schools  and  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, and  are  supported  by  appropriations  voted  by  the 
Imperial  Diet  in  the  annual  budget.  Those  of  the 
second  class  are  mainly  elementary,  middle  and  nor- 
mal schools,  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  local 
authorities,  and  are  supported  by  local  taxes,  some- 
times supplemented  by  national  aid.  Those  of  the 
third  class  are  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees,  but 
may  also  be  assisted  by  individual  beneficence.^ 

The  school  age  for  children  is  from  six  to  fourteen, 
and  covers  the  period  of  the  elementary  school ;  while 
the  period  of  compulsory  attendance  is  from  six  to 
ten  years  of  age.  During  the  latter  period  education 
is  free ;  and  in  any  case  tuition  fees  are  arranged  to 
suit  the  financial  ability  of  the  payer.  Corporal 
punishment  is  not  allowed  in  any  school. 

The  inspiring  motive  of  education  in  Japan  is 
found  in  an  Imperial  Rescript  that  the  late  Emperor 
issued  in  October,  1890.  A  copy  of  this  is  kept, 
often  hanging  framed,  in  every  school,  and  on 
special  occasions  it  is  read  aloud,  while  all  the 
scholars  reverently  listen  with  bowed  heads.  It 
reads  as  follows  .-^  — 

1  For  a  statistical  table  of  schools  in  the  empire,  see  Appendix. 
*  Official  translation,  revised. 


EDUCATION  213 

KNOW   YE,    OUR   SUBJECTS: 

Our  Imperial  Ancestors  have  founded  our  Empire  on 
a  basis  broad  and  everlasting  and  have  deeply  and  firmly- 
implanted  virtue.  Our  subjects,  ever  united  in  loyalty 
and  filial  piety,  have  from  generation  to  generation  illus- 
trated the  beauty  thereof.  This  is  the  glory  of  the  funda- 
mental character  of  Our  Empire,  and  herein  also  lies  the 
source  of  Our  education.  Ye,  our  subjects,  be  filial  to 
your  parents,  affectionate  to  your  brothers  and  sisters, 
as  husbands  and  wives  be  harmonious,  as  friends  true ; 
brothers,  bear  yourselves  in  modesty  and  moderation; 
extend  your  benevolence  to  all ;  pursue  learning  and  cul- 
tivate arts,  and  thereby  develop  intellectual  faculties 
and  perfect  moral  powers;  furthermore,  advance  public 
good  and  promote  common  interests ;  always  respect  the 
Constitution  and  observe  the  laws ;  should  emergency 
arise,  offer  yourselves  courageously  to  the  State ;  and 
thus  guard  and  maintain  the  prosperity  of  Our  Imperial 
Throne  coeval  with  heaven  and  earth.  So  shall  ye  not 
only  be  Our  good  and  faithful  subjects,  but  render  illus- 
trious the  best  traditions  of  your  forefathers. 

The  Way  here  set  forth  is  indeed  the  teaching  be- 
queathed by  Our  Imperial  Ancestors,  to  be  observed 
alike  by  their  Descendants  and  the  subjects,  infallible 
for  all  ages  and  true  in  all  reverence  in  common  with 
you,  Our  subjects,  that  we  may  all  thus  attain  to  the 
same  virtue. 

There  are  between  200  and  300  kindergartens, 
public  and  private,  in  Japan;  and  they  are  con- 
ducted, so  far  as  outward  forms  are  concerned,  very 
much  as  in  America  and  Europe.  The  common 
means  of  training  are  games,  singing,  conversation, 
and  handiwork.      But  the  Christian   kindergartens 


214    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

are  the  only  ones  that  cany  out  to  full  fruition 
the  real  spirit,  as  expressed  in  Froebel's  own  words: 
"  My  system  is  based  upon  religion  and  leads  up  to 
religion."  The  Christian  kindergartens  are  quite 
popular  and  successful. 

The  Japanese  elementary  school,  like  the  Ameri- 
can grammar  school,  covers  a  period  of  eight  years, 
which  is,  however,  divided  into  two  parts  of  four 
years  each.  The  lower  portion  is  called  the  "com- 
mon elementary  school,"  and  the  upper  portion  is  the 
"higher  elementary  school."  In  many  a  small  vil- 
lage only  the  former  is  maintained,  and  the  latter  is 
often  carried  on  by  the  co-operation  of  several  vil- 
lages ;  but  in  large  places  both  exist,  either  separately 
or  conjointly.  Under  certain  circumstances  a  sup- 
plementary course  may  be  established  in  elementary 
schools  (Sho  Gakko).  English  may  be  begun  in  the 
higher  elementary  school,  and  it  is  required  in  every 
middle  school. 

Each  prefecture  must  maintain  at  least  one  middle 
school  {Chu  Gakko)^  and  three  prefectures  have  as 
many  as  seven  each.  This  institution  corresponds 
practically  to  an  American  high  school;  but  its 
course  of  study  covers  five  years,  besides  the  op- 
portunity of  a  supplementary  year.  Candidates  for 
admission  must  be  over  twelve  years  of  age,  and 
possess  attainments  equal  to  those  who  have  com- 
pleted the  second  year  of  the  higher  elementary 
school.  Thus  two  years  of  these  schools  lap  over 
each  other.     The  number  of  middle  schools,  in  spite 


EDUCATION  215 

of  annual  increase,  is  still  inadequate  to  accommodate 
all  the  applicants. 

There  are  in  Japan  eight  "higher  schools"  (^Kdto 
G-akJco},  located  at  Tokyo,  Sendai,  Kyoto,  Kanazawa, 
Kumamoto,  Okayama,  Yamaguchi,  and  Kagoshima. 
These  bear  numbers  in  this  order,  and  are  often  called 
by  the  name  "  High  School, "  because  the  word  Koto 
means  simply  "high  grade."  If  the  reader,  for  in- 
stance, sees  elsewhere  a  reference  to  the  "  Third  High 
School,"  it  will  refer  to  the  Koto  GaJcko  at  Kyoto. 
The  word  "Higher"  is,  therefore,  used  in  this  book 
to  avoid  confusion.  These  schools  are  clearing-houses, 
or  preparatory  schools,  for  the  universities,  and  have 
also  their  own  complete  departments. 

At  present  there  are  only  two  public  universities 
in  Japan,  —  at  Tokyo  and  Kyoto.  The  former  con- 
tains six  colleges  (Law,  Medicine,  Engineering, 
Literature,  Science,  and  Agriculture) ;  and  the  latter 
consists  of  only  four  colleges  (Law,  Medicine,  Sci- 
ence, and  Engineering),  but  others  will  be  added 
gradually.  There  are  also  just  two  great  private 
universities,  both  in  Tokyo:  the  Keio-gijiku,  founded 
by  the  late  Mr.  Fukuzawa,  the  "great  commoner," 
and  the  "  grand  old  man  "  of  Japan ;  and  the  Waseda, 
founded  by  that  veteran  statesman.  Count  Okuma. 
There  is  no  Christian  institution  of  university  grade, 
although  it  is  confidently  expected  that  the  Doshisha, 
at  Kyoto,  will  soon  be  elevated  again  to  that  rank. 
The  Japanese  universities  have  very  good  accommo- 
dations and  equipment,  with  strong  faculties,  and  are 


216   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

doing  work  worthy  to  be  compared  with  that  of  Oc- 
cidental universities.  One  of  the  most  unique  phases 
of  university  work  in  Japan  is  the  fact  that  the  Im- 
perial University  in  Tokyo  maintains  a  chair  of  seis- 
mology, or,  in  other  words,  supports  a  most  important 
"  professor  of  earthquakes"  I 

Common  normal  schools  number  over  fifty;  there 
must  be  at  least  one  in  each  prefecture,  and  in  four 
cases  there  are  two  or  three  each.  Besides  these 
and  above  these  is  a  "higher  normal  school,"  or 
normal  college,  in  Tokyo,  with  an  elementary  school 
and  a  middle  school  for  practice  work.  There  is 
also  in  Tokyo  a  "higher  female  normal  school,"  with 
a  kindergarten,  an  elementary  school,  and  a  high 
school  for  practice  work.  But  these  provisions  are 
inadequate  to  supply  the  increasing  demand  for 
teachers  in  public  schools. 

Inasmuch  as  Japan  is  an  agricultural  country 
and  is  rich  in  forests,  agricultural  and  dendrologi- 
cal  schools  are  a  necessity,  in  order  that  the  people 
may  be  able  to  make  the  most  out  of  their  re- 
sources. The  Sapporo  Agricultural  College,  founded 
by  Americans  in  1872,  is  the  best  of  its  kind,  and 
furnishes  a  broader  course  of  study  than  its  name 
implies. 

And,  in  order  that  the  industrial  life  of  New  Japan 
may  be  elevated,  and  both  capital  and  labor  may 
profit  by  the  latest  inventions  and  improvements, 
manual  training  and  other  technical  schools  have 
been  started  and  are  very  popular. 


EDUCATORS    AND    SCIENTISTS    OF    JAPAN 

BARON    ISHIGURO,   VISCOUNT   MORI,    MR.   FUKUZAWA, 

DR.    KITASATO 


BDUCATION  217 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  are  not  fitted 
by  natural  temperament  for  a  mercantile  life,  and  yet 
the  geographical  position  of  Japan  is  so  well  adapted 
to  a  commercial  career,  the  need  of  thorough  instruc- 
tion in  modern  methods  of  business  has  been  keenly 
felt,  and  is  being  supplied  by  business  colleges,  of 
which  the  Higher  Commercial  School  in  Tokyo  is 
most  useful  and  prosperous. 

Formerly  an  adjunct  of  the  above-mentioned  insti- 
tution, but  now  an  independent  organization,  is  the 
Foreign  Language  School,  Tokyo.  Besides  this, 
several  foreign  languages  are  taught  in  the  middle 
and  higher  schools  and  the  universities;  and  there 
are  also  a  great  many  private  schools  and  classes 
for  instruction  in  one  or  more  foreign  languages. 
English  is,  of  course,  the  most  popular  and  most 
useful. 

The  Tokyo  Fine  Arts  School  is  the  best  of  its 
kind,  and  gives  instruction  in  painting  (both  Japan- 
ese and  European),  designing,  sculpture,  and  "in- 
dustrial arts,"  like  engraving,  puddling,  casting, 
lacquer,  etc.  The  Tokyo  Academy  of  Music  is  a 
type  of  its  kind,  and  gives  instruction  in  vocal  and 
instrumental  music  and  musical  composition.  It  has 
accomplished  wonders  along  those  lines. 

The  education  of  the  blind,  the  deaf,  and  the  dumb 
is  not  neglected  in  Japan ;  there  are  ten  schools  for 
the  benefit  of  these  unfortunates;  and  the  govern- 
ment institution  in  Tokyo  is  the  most  important. 
Charity  schools  and  orphan  asylums  are  also  carried 


218        A  HAISTDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

on,   chiefly  under  Christian  auspices,  in  very  poor 
districts  in  large  cities. 

During  the  early  years  of  New  Japan  female  edu- 
cation was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  who  alone  seemed  to  realize  the 
necessity  of  a  better  education  and  training  for  the 
future  mothers  of  the  nation.  But  thinking  Japan- 
ese have  come  to  realize,  with  Count  Okuma,  that 
all  countries  which  have  attempted  "to  work  with 
the  male  sex  as  the  single  standard"  have  "fallen 
signally  behind  in  the  march  of  progress  " ;  and  that 
"  Japan  by  raising  woman  to  her  proper  place  should 
provide  herself  with  a  double  standard."  Thus  it 
has  come  about  that  educational  privileges  for  girls 
and  young  ladies  are  increasing. 

Law  schools,  medical  schools,  theological  semi- 
naries, and  other  professional  schools  are  numerous ; 
on  these  lines  private  enterprise  is  very  active, 
because  the  public  institutions  are  inadequate. 

There  used  to  be  a  great  dearth  of  good  private 
institutions  of  learning,  and  this  lack  was  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  private  enterprise  in  this  direc- 
tion received  little  encouragament,  and  public  spirit 
was  lacking  on  the  part  of  those  who  might  have 
assisted  in  this  way.  But  recently  both  the  ad- 
vantages of  private  schools  and  the  opportunities 
thus  afforded  to  men  of  means  have  come  to  be 
appreciated. 

In  this  connection  a  few  words  should  be  written 
concerning  mission  schools,  which  will  also  be  con- 


EDUCATION  219 

sidered  in  the  chapter  on  Christianity.  In  spite  of 
limitations  both  from  within  and  from  without,  these 
institutions,  having  their  "ups  and  downs,"  never- 
theless maintained  themselves  and  have  won  popular 
favor  against  a  strong  prejudice.  They  have  always 
insisted  upon  a  high  mental  and  moral  standard,  and 
have  without  doubt  aroused  the  public  schools  to  raise 
their  standards  and  ideals.  Whatever  may  be  said 
for  or  against  mission  schools  as  evangelizing  agen- 
cies, it  is  generally  acknowledged  that,  as  educa- 
tional institutions,  they  have  been  models  of  correct 
pedagogical  principles  and  exemplars  of  high  morality. 

It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that,  after  a  period 
during  which  the  Japanese  thought  that  they  could 
teach  foreign  languages  as  well  as  foreigners,  there 
is  an  increasing  demand  for  foreign  instructors. 
Within  the  past  two  years  several  young  men  from 
America  have  been  engaged  as  teachers  of  English 
in  middle  schools;  and  such  opportunities  are  in- 
creasing. Moreover,  a  larger  number  of  students 
than  ever  are  annually  sent  abroad  by  the  govern- 
ment, or  go  abroad  at  their  own  expense,  to  finish 
their  education.  Thus  narrow  prejudices  are  dissi- 
pated and  minds  are  broadened. 

Another  means  for  improving  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  Japan  is  to  be  found  in  teachers'  associations, 
educational  societies,  and  summer  institutes.  The 
first  two  are  local ;  the  last  are  national.  The  educa- 
tional societies  are  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
general  interest  in  education  in  the  different  locali- 


220        A  HAKDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ties;  the  teachers'  associations  are,  as  in  America, 
for  the  improvement  of  methods  of  instruction ;  and 
the  summer  institutes  are  for  the  same  purpose  on  a 
broader  scale. 

What  was  written  about  private  schools  may  be  re- 
peated concerning  libraries.  No  Japanese  Carnegie 
has  yet  appeared ;  only  a  few  men,  like  Mr.  Ohashi, 
and  the  late  Baron  Kodama,  formerly  Governor  of 
Formosa,  have  endowed  libraries  as  memorials.  The 
largest  public  library  is  the  Imperial  Library  ^  in 
Tokyo,  with  over  400,000  volumes,  of  which  more 
than  50,000  volumes  are  in  European  languages. 

It  is  in  the  domain  of  science  that  the  Japanese 
have  achieved,  perhaps,  their  greatest  intellectual 
successes.  Their  work  in  original  investigation  is 
always  painstaking,  and  in  many  cases  it  has  at- 
tained an  international  reputation.  The  names  of 
Dr.  Kitasato,  associated  with  the  famous  Dr.  Koch 
in  his  researches,  and  Dr.  Aoyama,  the  hero  of  the 
pest  in  China,  are  well  known;  and  now  comes  Dr. 
Ishigami,  who  claims  to  have  discovered  the  germ 
of  smallpox. 

The  chief  defects  in  the  Japanese  educational 
system  are  on  three  lines:  dependence  on  Chinese 
ideographs,  vague  instruction  in  ethics,  and  en- 
couragement of  cramming.  The  removal  of  these 
hindrances  to  progress  is  engaging  the  attention  of 
thoughtful  educators,  but  is  a  slow  and  gradual 
process. 

1  This  has  recently  secured  the  famous  Max  Miiller  Library. 


EDUCATION  221 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

<'The  Wee  Ones  of  Japan"  (Mrs.  Bramhall),  pp.  97-108; 
"  When  I  was  a  Boy  in  Japan  "  (Shioya)  ;  "  A  Japanese  Boy  " 
(Shigemi)  ;  "  Japanese  Girls  and  Women  "  and  "A  Japanese  In- 
terior" (Miss  Bacon),  all  give  interesting  accounts  of  school  life 
in  both  Old  and  New  Japan.  The  Department  of  Education  is- 
sues annually  in  English,  for  free  distribution  on  application, 
a  "  Report,"  which  contains  the  latest  statistics  and  other  in- 
formation. "The  Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far  East" 
(Lewis)  is  an  excellent  discussion  of  educational  conditions  and 
problems  of  the  day  in  China  and  Japan.  See  also  Scherer's 
"Young  Japan,"  pp.  284-311.  The  (English)  catalogue  of  the 
Imperial  University,  Tokyo,  is  instructive.  "  Every  Day 
Japan  "  (Lloyd)  contains  interesting  material  on  this  subject. 
"Japanese  Education"  (Kikuchi)  is  authoritative. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ESTHETIC   JAPAN 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Japan's  debt  to  art.  —  Wide  diffusion  of 
aesthetic  ideals.  —  Chinese  origin  of  Japanese  art.  —  Painting  the 
key-note.  —  Considered  a  form  of  poetry.  —  Characteristics.  — 
Color  prints.  —  Sculpture.  —  Keramics.  —  Metal  work.  —  Cloisonne. 
Lacquer.  —  Embroidery.  —  Music.  —  Poetry.  —  Dancing.  —  Drama. 
Tea  ceremonies.  — Flower  arrangement.  —  Landscape  gardening.  — 
Unity  of  the  arts.  — Bibliography. 

/  TT  T  has  been  said  with  a  great  deal  of  truth  that 
I  no  other  country  in  the  world  owes  so  much 
-^  to  its  art  as  Japan.  As  Huish  puts  it,  "  Japan 
would  never  have  attracted  the  extraordinary  notice 
which  she  so  rapidly  did  had  it  not  been  for  her  art. 
.  .  .  Her  art  manufactures  have  penetrated  the  length/ 
and  breadth  of  the  world."  Yet  it  is  a  curious  fact, 
to  which  Chamberlain  calls  attention,  that  the  Jap- 
anese have  "  no  genuinely  native  word  "  for  either 
art  or  nature.  The  expression  "fine  art"  is  com- 
monly represented  by  the  word  hi-jutsuy  a  Chinese 
compound  meaning  literally  "beauty-craft."  So  in- 
timately are  aesthetic  ideals  bound  up  with  the  whole 
course  of  Japanese  hfe  and  modes  of  thought,  that 
art  is  not,  as  in  the  Western  world,  a  mere  sporadic 
efflorescence,  but  the  inevitable  expression  of  the 
spirit  of  the  Eastern  civilization,  and  needing  there- 


ESTHETIC  JAPAN  223 

fore  no  distinctive  term  to  denote  it  as  a  thing  set 
apart  and  existing  by  itself. 

While  this  is  true,  it  is  also  true  that  Japan 
furnishes  no  exception  to  Mr.  Whistler's  dictum  that 
"there  never  was  an  art-loving  nation."  The  ex- 
planation of  this  seeming  paradox  is  one  which  needs 
to  be  borne  in  mind.  The  aesthetic  ideals  crystallized 
in  the  works  of  the  countless  generations  of  artists 
who  for  more  than  a  thousand  yeai-s  have  held  to 
them  firmly  as  their  guiding  principles,  have  become 
so  much  the  intellectual  heritage  of  the  people  as  a 
whole  that  it  is  most  natural  that  the  foreign  observer, 
noting  the  aesthetic  impress  upon  everything  about 
him,  should  look  upon  the  Japanese  as  a  nation  of 
artists.  To  an  extent  not  known  elsewhere  the  Jap- 
anese mechanic  is  indeed  an  ar1>isan.  And  there  is  a 
measure  of  truth  in  Percival  Lowell's  assertion  that 
there  are  "  no  mechanical  arts  in  Japan  simply  because 
all  such  have  been  raised  to  the  position  of  fine  arts."  ^ 
From  the  Japanese  point  of  view,  however,  differ- 
ences in  degree  of  artistic  perception  are  as  pronounced 
among  the  Japanese  as  among  other  peoples.  In 
Japan,  as  in  all  other  lands,  artistic  inspiration  is 
given  to  but  few  among  the  many ;  artists  having 
creative  genius  tower  high  above  their  fellows ;  and 
the  little  touches  that  excite  the  wonder  and  admira- 
tion of  the  outside  world  are  seen  to  be  in  large 
degree  the  outcome  of  conventional  notions  rather 
than  the  expression  of  individual  feeling. 

1  "  The  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  p.  121. 


224   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  art  of  Japan  like  most  other  elements  in  her 
civilization  is  of  Chinese  origin/ \  Concurrently  with 
the  introduction  by  way  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  of 
that  stream  of  abstract  idealism  known  as  Northern 
Buddhism,  China  became  the  fountain  head  whence 
until  comparatively  recent  times  a  succession  of 
aesthetic  ideas  spread  over  Japan.^  Modern  Chinese 
art  is  justly  held  to  possess  little  merit,  but  in  the 
d£ijs  when  it  exerted  its  dominating  influence  upon 
the  Japanese  mind  it  had  attained  a  very  high  stand- 
ard of  excellence,  and  in  particular  some  of  the  Chinese 
painters  were  among  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever 
known.  (^With  the  exception  of  a  few  original  modi- 
fications, the  product  of  temperament  and  historical 
situation,  everything  in  Japanese  art  has  come  from 
China ;  yet  the  generic  ideas  have  been  so  worked 
over  and  transformed  in  the  process  that  the  result- 
ant is  distinctly  not  Chinese  but  Japanese. ,  The  in- 
fluence of  Buddhism  has  been  very  great ;  it  would 
indeed,  be  difficult  to  overestimate  it.^  Most  of 
the  earlier  artists  were  Buddliist  priests,  and,  until 
the  revival  of  Shinto  as  the  State  religion,  during  the 
present  reign.  Buddhism  was  directly  and  indirectly 
one  of  the  principal  promoters  and  patrons  of  the  arts. 

^  While  it  is  possible  and  even  probable  that  this  movement 
may  have  begun  before  the  formal  introduction  of  Buddhism  from 
Korea  in  the  year  662,  our  present  knowledge  of  the  history  of  art 
in  Japan  anterior  to  thnt  event  is  not  suflBicient  to  warrant  any 
definite  assertion  respecting  it. 

^  See  "  The  Ideals  of  the  East/'  by'  Kakasu  Okakura.  London, 
1903. 


PAINTING   BY    IIO-ITSU  :    VIEW   OF   FUJI-SAN 


6 


ESTHETIC  JAPAN"  225 


Foremost  among  the  arts  of  Japan,  both  relatively 
and  as  the  key  which  is  necessary  to  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  the  others,  is  painting.  ^  It  is  an 
art  differing  in  many  respects  from  that  of  the 
European  schools  of  painting,  but  not  less  worthy  of 
serious  consideration,  and  in  certain  qualities  it  ranks 
supreme.  To  those  who  have  seen  the  masterpieces 
preserved  among  the  temple  treasures,  or  hidden  in 
the  collections  of  Japanese  noblemen,  and  have  felt 
their  grandeur  and  charm,  this  will  seem  far  short  of 
over-statement.  In  the  West,  however,  there  is  little 
opportunity  to  gauge  the  achievements  of  the  great 
Japanese  painters,^  and  it  is  even  possible  to  spend 
a  lifetime  in  Japan  and  remain  in  ignorance  thereof. 
f  Japanese  critics  have  always  considered  painting 
to  be  a  form  of  poetry.  The  painter  therefore  strives 
to  represent  the  soul  of  things  rather  than  their  vis- 
ible forms.  Not  that  he  scorns  realism,  indeed  he  is 
often  minutely  realistic  in  a  way  that  is  unapproach- 
able ;  but  realism  wdth  him  is  only  incidental,  his 
main  purpose  being  to  produce  a  poem  in  form  and 
color.     To  this  end  all  irrelevant  details  are  neces- 


1  The  principal  collections  of  Japanese  paintings  in  America  are 
the  FenoUosa  collection  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  and 
that  of  Mr.  Charles  L.  Freer,  of  Detroit.  A  few  fine  works  are 
owned  by  Mr.  Henry  O.  Havemeyer,  Mr.  Howard  Mansfield,  and 
Mr.  C.  D.  Weldon,  of  New  York  ;  Mr.  Denman  Ross,  Mr.  Quincy  A. 
Shaw,  and  Mrs.  John  Gardner,  of  Boston ;  Mr.  Charles  J.  Morse,  of 
Uniontown,  Pa. ;  and  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Gookin,  of  Chicago.  In  Eng- 
land the  most  notable  collections  are  those  of  the  British  Museum 
and  Mr.  Arthur  Morrison,  of  Loughton.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  private  collections  in  France  and  Germany. 

15 


226   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

sarily  omitted.  Nothing  is  given  that  in  any  way 
interferes  with  the  central  thought.  Reduced  thus 
to  its  simplest  elements,  his  art  calls  for  the  utmost 
harmony  in  all  that  enters  into  it,  and  first  of  all  for 
perfect  composition  of  line,  mass,  and  vacant  space. 
Scarcely  less  important  is  color  arrangement,  includ- 
ing the  balancing  of  light  and  dark  as  factors  in  the 
result.  A  high  degree  of  technical  skill  is  also  requi- 
site, for  the  poetry  would  be  lost  should  the  execution 
seem  labored.  The  greatest  works  are,  in  appearance 
at  least,  spontaneous  to  an  astonishing  degree.  Won- 
derful indeed  are  the  possibilities  of  a  single  brush 
stroke  in  the  hands  of  a  master.  The  effects  pro- 
duced range  from  almost  microscopic  realism  to  the 
broadest  impressionism,  the  latter  quality  being  pre- 
dominant in  the  works  of  some  of  the  most  eminent 
artists. 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  sum  them  up  in  a  brief 
statement,  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Jap- 
anese painting  are  these  :  — 

1.  Excellence  of  composition. 

2.  Subtlety  and  beauty  of  line. 

3.  Remarkable  command  of  the  brush,  and  directness 
of  method  in  its  use. 

4.  Simplicity  of  treatment,  and  rigid  exclusion  of  non- 
essentials. 

5.  Absence  of  chiaroscuro,  and  the  employment  of 
notaTif  or  contrast  between  light  and  dark. 

6.  Skilful  generalization  of  forms. 

7.  Poetical  conception. 

8.  High  development  of  the  sense  of  harmony  in  color. 


y 


ESTHETIC  JAPAN  227 

Any  such  summing  up  is,  however,  necessarily  im- 
perfect. It  is  not  feasible  to  give  here  any  account 
of  the  various  schools  and  artists,  and  the  reader 
desirinsr  more  extended  information  is  referred  to  the 
sources  indicated  in  the  bibliography  appended  to 
this  chapter.  Before  leaving  this  branch  of  the  sub- 
ject, mention  should  be  made  of  calligraphy,  which, 
although  justly  regarded  in  Japan  as  an  art,  is  not  so 
much  a  separate  art  as  the  art  of  painting  applied  to 
writing  the  Chinese  ideographs.  It  will  not  appear 
strange,  therefore,  that  masterly  writing  should  be 
esteemed  equally  with  painting. 

An  art  closely  allied  to  painting  is  that  of  chromo- 
xylography,  or  color  printing  from  engraved  wood 
blocks.  Nothing  could  be  simpler  than  the  method 
employed,  the  sheets  of  paper  being  laid  face  down 
on  the  block  which  has  been  previously  inked  with 
a  brush,  and  pressure  is  then  applied  by  rubbing  the 
back  of  the  sheets  with  a  pad  held  in  the  hand  of 
the  printer.  Nevertheless  no  greater  triumphs  of  the 
printer's  art  have  ever  been  achieved  than  the  beautiful 
color  prints  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries 
after  designs  by  Harunobu,  Koriusai,  Shunsho,  Kyo- 
naga,  Toyokuni,  Utamaro,  Hokusai,  and  other  noted 
artists  of  the  Popular  school.  Though  still  in  use,  this 
process  is  largely  being  superseded  by  the  cheaper, 
if  less  artistic,  processes  of  lithography,  collotype,  etc. 

In  glyptic  art  the  triumphs  of  the  Japanese  have 
been  little  less  than  in  that  of  painting.  The  most 
remarkable  specimens  are  the  ancient  figures  in  bronze 


228   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  in  wood  which  are  preserved  in  the  temples.  The 
Daibutsu,  or  gigantic  bronze  statue  of  Buddha,  at  Nara 
will  serve  as  an  example,  having  been  illustrated  so 
often  that  all  the  world  is  famihar  with  its  appearance. 

The  objects  upon  which  the  art  of  the  Japanese 
sculptors  has  been  exercised  are  many.  Particularly 
in  the  carving  of  the  masks  used  in  the  No  dances, 
and  the  little  ornaments  called  netsuke,  the  skill  and 
artistic  qualities  displayed  are  often  of  the  highest 
order.  It  would  be  difficult  to  overpraise  the  best 
work  of  such  artists  in  this  line,  as  Deme  Jikan, 
Minko,  Tomotada,  Miwa,  and  many  others.  As  in 
the  case  of  painting,  the  method  used  by  the  carver 
must  be  direct  and  masterly  to  satisfy  Japanese  taste. 
Only  clean,  strong  strokes  will  pass  muster.  There 
must  be  no  niggling  nor  retouching.  Visitors  to  the 
shrines  at  Nikko  will  be  impressed  by  this  quality  in 
the  remarkable  works  to  be  found  there  by  the  famous 
seventeenth-century  sculptor  Hidari  Jingoro,  that  is 
to  say,  "  Left-handed  Jingoro." 

One  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  arts  of  Japan  is 
that  of  the  potter.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  profit- 
able for  study.  The  principles  which  have  been 
enumerated  as  applicable  to  painting  will  be  found 
carefully  embodied  in  the  fabrication  and  ornamenta- 
tion of  keramic  wares,  the  variety  of  which  is  endless. 
In  some  instances  these  wares  are  known  by  the 
names  of  the  makers,  as  Ninsei,  Kenzan,  Kozan, 
Seifu,  and  others;  but  in  general  they  are  desig- 
nated by  the  names  of   the  provinces  wherein  they 


ESTHETIC  JAPAN  229 

are  made.  Thus  we  have  the  wares  of  Satsuma,  Hizen, 
Arita,  Imari,  Kaga,  Kyoto,  Owari,  Bizen,  Iga,  Ota, 
Soma,  Tzumo,  and  many  more.  Occasionally  the  name 
of  a  particular  locality  is  used,  as  for  instance  that  of 
Seto  in  Owari.  Here  it  was  that  Shirozaemon,  called 
"the  Father  of  Pottery,"  established  himself  in  the 
thirteenth  century ;  and  such  was  the  repute  of  the 
products  of  his  kiln  that  Seto-mono^  or  Seto  ware, 
became  a  generic  name  in  Japan  for  all  keramic  pro- 
ductions, quite  as  in  English  we  use  the  term  "  china  " 
for  all  kinds  of  porcelain  wherever  made. 

Unfortunately  the  Japanese  potter  of  to-day  is 
largely  under  the  influence  of  foreign  markets,  to 
the  great  degradation  of  his  art.  The  condition  is 
well  portrayed  by  Huish,  who  says  :  *'  The  wealthy 
'  red-hairs '  who  came  to  him  from  the  West  could  see 
no  beauties  in  the  objects  that  had  given  the  greatest 
pleasure  to  the  men  of  refinement  of  his  own  country; 
and  in  order  that  the  potter  might  participate  in  the 
overflow  of  silver  dollars  with  which  the  foreigners 
were  blessed,  he  was  obliged  to  put  aside  those  prin- 
ciples which  he  and  his  father  before  him  had  looked 
upon  as  the  fundamental  ones  of  their  craft,  and  pro- 
duce wares  totally  at  variance  with  his  preconceived 
ideas  of  the  right." 

Many  and  distinctive  are  the  arts  of  the  Japanese 
metal-workers.  They  are  widely  renowned  for  their 
skill  in  compounding  numerous  alloys,  for  inlaying 
one  metal  upon  another,  for  clever  manipulation  of 
refractory  materials  such  as  wrought  iron  of  exceeding 


230   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

toughness  which  they  nevertheless  carve  and  chase 
almost  as  though  it  were  wax,  for  casting  in  bronze 
and  iron  by  the  cire  perdue  process,  and  especially 
for  the  manufacture  of  armor,  both  offensive  (such  as 
swords  and  spears)  and  defensive  (such  as  helmets 
And  coats  of  mail).  Japanese  swords  excel  even  the 
famous  blades  of  Damascus  and  Toledo,  and  the 
names  of  the  swordsmiths  Munichika,  Masamune, 
Muramasa,  and  others,  are  now  of  international  rep- 
utation. The  blades  which  were  made  by  these 
men  are  not  only  of  extraordinary  excellence,  but  are 
also  veritable  works  of  art  and  highly  prized  as 
such  by  connoisseurs.  Equally  celebrated  in  different 
lines  are  the  works  of  the  Miochin  and  Goto  families ; 
and  among  the  metal-workers  of  to-day  are  many 
worthy  successors  of  these  giants  of  the  past. 

The  art  of  enamelling  upon  metal  is,  with  some 
exceptions,  comparatively  a  new  one  in  Japan,  but 
is  now  very  popular.  The  wares  are  known  to  the 
Japanese  as  Shippo-yaki,  and  in  general,  in  the  West,» 
as  cloisonne.  The  centres  of  the  enamel-workers 
are  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and  Nagoya,  and  the  best-known 
makers  are  Namikawa,  of  Tokyo,  the  inventor  of  the 
"  cloison-less  "  enamel,  and  his  namesake  of  Kyoto. 

One  of  the  most  distinctive  of  the  arts  of  Japan 
is  that  of  lacquering,  and  the  Japanese  product  far 
excels  that  of  any  other  makers.  The  lac,  which  is 
a  varnish  made  from  the  poisonous  sap  of  a  tree  of 
the  sumac  (rhus)  family,  is  applied  in  thin  layers 
on  a  carefully  prepared  ground,  usually  of  wood,  and 


PAINTING   BY   YASUNOBU  :    HEKON    AND   LOTUS 


ESTHETIC  JAPAK  231 

after  being  dried  in  a  moist  oven  or  steam-chest,  is 
carefully  rubbed  down  and  polished.  This  is  repeated 
with  each  layer.  Various  substances,  metallic  and 
other,  are  mixed  with  the  lac  or  applied  to  its  surface 
before  it  is  dry,  and  it  may  be  carved  and  inlaid  in 
different  ways.  This  is  a  bare  outline  of  a  process 
which  is  long  and  tedious  and  which  has  many  varia- 
tions. Extended  accounts  with  many  interesting  de- 
tails will  be  found  in  Rein's  "  Industries  of  Japan," 
in  the  ninth  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,  and  in  Volume  VII.  of  Captain 
Brinkley's  "Japan." 

Embroidery,  like  the  designing  for  brocades  and 
other  fabrics,  is  an  art  which  follows  closely  the 
analogies  of  the  art  of  painting,  and  is  governed  by 
the  same  aesthetic  principles.  The  embroiderers  in 
Japan  are  not  women  but  men,  and  in  their  work  they 
often  display  remarkable  taste  and  ability  as  designers, 
as  well  as  craftsmanship  of  the  highest  order. 

To  Occidental  ears  Japanese  music,  set,  as  it  always 
is,  in  a  minor  key  and  abounding  in  discords,  seems 
unworthy  of  the  name  of  music.  To  characterize  it 
as  merely  "  strummings  and  squealings  "  because  it 
does  not  conform  to  our  ideas,  is,  however,  an  unfair 
aspersion.  The  fact  is  that  it  is  based  upon  a  scale 
which  differs  from  that  which  we  use,  one  of  its 
peculiarities  being  the  introduction  of  a  semi-tone 
above  the  tonic.  In  the  Japanese  mind  music  is  so 
closely  related  to  the  sister  arts  of  poetry  and  dancing 
that  neither  can   well    be    treated  separately.      As 


232   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Captain  Brinkley  tells  us :  "  There  is  no  Japanese 
music  that  will  not  serve  as  accompaniment  for  the 
Japanese  stanza,  and  the  stanza,  in  turn,  adapts  itself 
perfectly  to  the  fashion  of  the  Japanese  dance.  The 
law  of  the  unities  seems  to  have  prescribed  that  the 
cadence  of  the  stanza  should  melt  into  the  Hit  of 
the  song,  and  that  the  measure  of  the  song  should 
be  worked  out  by  the  'woven  paces  and  waving 
hands'  of  the  dance.  The  affinity  between  them  is 
so  close  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  one  begins 
and  the  other  ends." 

Japanese  poetry  is  also  conspicuously  different  from 
that  of  the  Occident.  It  is  a  form  of  word  painting 
in  brief  lyrics,  and  "  it  is  primarily  an  expression  of 
emotion."  The  odes  which  all  Japanese  learn  to 
compose  are  verbal  melodies  which  can  be  neither 
transposed  nor  translated.  Owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  Japanese  language,  there  are  no  accented  syllables, 
nor  is  there  any  quantity,  nor  any  rhyme.  This  is 
well  explained  by  Aston  in  his  "  History  of  Japanese 
Literature."     He  says:  — 

"  As  every  syllable  ends  in  a  vowel,  and  as  there  are 
only  five  vowels,  there  could  only  be  five  rhymes,  the 
constant  reiteration  of  which  would  be  intolerably  mo- 
notonous. .  .  .  The  only  thing  in  the  mechanism  of  Jap- 
anese poetry  which  distinguishes  it  from  prose  is  the 
alternation  of  phrases  of  Jive  aiid  seven  syllables  each. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  species  of  blank  verse." 

The  art  of  dancing,  which  consists  mainly  in 
rhythmic  posturings,  often  of  great  beauty,  and  re- 


.ESTHETIC  JAPAN  233 

quiring  not  only  physical  training  of  the  most  rigor- 
ous character  but  a  high  degree  of  skill,  is  in  turn 
intimately  associated  with  the  histrionic  art.  For  an 
account  of  the  early  dances  and  their  gradual  merg- 
ing into  the  classical  drama  or  dance  known  as  No 
(literally,  "accomplishment"),  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  third  volume  of  Captain  Brinkley's  "  Japan : 
Its  History,  Arts,  and  Literature."  Few  foreigners 
ever  learn  to  appreciate  Japanese  dancing.  Its  pri- 
mary purpose  is  mimetic.  "  The  mechanics  of  the 
dance,"  says  Brinkley,  "are  as  nothing  to  the  Jap- 
anese spectator  compared  with  the  music  of  its  motion, 
and  he  interprets  the  staccato  and  legato  of  its  passages 
with  discrimination  amounting  almost  to  instinct. 
In  exceptional  cases  the  foreigner's  perception  may 
be  similarly  subtle,"  but  as  he  must  generally  be 
unable  to  apprehend  the  esoterics  of  the  dance,  he  is 
"  like  one  watching  a  drama  where  an  unknown  plot 
is  acted  in  an  unintelligible  language." 

As  to  the  Japanese  drama  proper,  it  differs  from 
our  own  chiefly  in  the  stage  setting  and  accessories, 
and  in  the  greater  importance  given  to  the  mimetic 
side  of  the  performance. 

An  art  essentially  Japanese  is  that  of  flower  arrange- 
ment. In  its  origin  it  is  closely  related  to  the 
Cha-no-yu,  or  Tea  Ceremonial,  which  developed  into 
a  cult  during  the  Shogunate  of  Ashikaga  Yoshimasa 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  This  cult,  which  was 
founded  on  the  four  cardinal  virtues  of  urbanity, 
courtesy,   purity,   and  imperturbability,   has  been  a 


234   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mighty  force  in  holding  the  Japanese  true  to  a  high 
standard  in  matters  of  taste,  by  combining  "  sesthetic 
eclecticism  of  the  most  fastidious  nature  with  the 
severest  canons  of  simplicity  and  austerity."  The 
end  has  been  achieved  not  so  much  by  the  elaborate 
code  as  through  what  it  stands  for;  the  ceremony 
being  in  reality  a  gathering  of  connoisseurs  to  view 
works  of  art,  each  of  which  to  win  favor  must  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  most  exacting  taste.  Out 
of  the  sesthetic  necessity  of  making  fitting  disposition 
of  the  flowers  introduced  into  the  tea-room,  grew  the 
art  of  Ike-hana,  or  flower  arrangement.  This  has 
gradually  come  to  have  an  elaborate  code  of  its  own, 
and  several  distinct  "  schools "  have  arisen.  In  a 
general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  art  consists 
in  arranging  flowers  with  regard  to  harmonious  com- 
position of  line,  while  keeping  in  mind  certain  poetic 
analogies  which  must  not  be  violated,  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  vitality  and  natural  growth.  Here,  again, 
the  principles  of  composition  in  painting  find  their 
application. 

Still  another  application  is  found  in  landscape  gar- 
dening, which  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  is  also 
a  fine  art.  This  too  has  its  different  "  schools  "  and 
its  special  code  of  rules,  formulated  during  the  many 
centuries  of  development  at  the  hands  of  successive 
generations  of  artists. 

Japan  is,  in  truth,  a  shining  example  of  the  essen- 
tial unity  of  all  the  arts,  and  illustrates  admirably 
the  truth  of  the  old  saying,  Natura  artis  magitter 


ESTHETIC  JAPAN  236 

(Nature  the  mistress  of  art).  Unfortunately,  what 
has  been  said  in  this  chapter  applies  more  to  Old 
Japan  than  to  the  Japan  of  to-day.  Modern  Japan, 
whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  is  becoming  tired  of  being 
praised  for  aesthetic  excellence,  and  is  more  anxious 
to  be  appraised  and  appreciated  for  its  material,  social, 
commercial,  and  political  *'  progress."  To  the  cul- 
tivated Japanese,  who  regard  art  as  the  highest  out- 
come and  flowering  of  civilization,  this  tendency  is 
not  encouraging.  And  as  to  the  future  of  Japanese 
art,  its  perpetuation  must  come  from  excluding  rather 
than  attempting  to  amalgamate  Western  ideas.  In 
the  impressive  words  of  Okakura,  the  outcome  will 
be  "  victory  from  within,  or  a  mighty  death  without." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Painting:  *'  The  Pictorial  Arts  of  Japan"  (Anderson)  ;  "Cata- 
logue of  Japanese  and  Chinese  Paintings  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum "  (Anderson)  ;  "  The  Painters  of  Japan  "  (Morrison). 

Prints:  "  An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Ukiyo-ye  "  (Fenollosa)  ; 
"  Geschichte  des  Japanischen  Farbenbolzschnitts  "  (Seidlitz) ; 
"Japanese  Illustration"  (Strange);  "Japanese  Wood  En- 
gravings "  (Anderson)  ;  "  Japanese  Wood-cutting  and  Wood- 
cut Printing  "  (Tokuno). 

Pottery:  "Catalogue  of  the  Morse  Collection  of  Japanese 
Pottery,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston"  (Morse);  "Japan: 
Its  History,  Art,  and  Literature  "  (Brinkley)  ;  "Keramic  Art 
of  Japan  "  (Audsley  and  Bowes)  ;  "  L' Art  Japonais  "  (Gonse). 

Glyptic  Art:  "  Histoire  de  I'Art  du  Japan,"  published  by  the 
Japanese  Commission  for  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 
This  work  contains  much  information  about  all  the  arts,  not 
available  elsewhere. 

Metal  Work  —  Lacquer:  "The  Industries  of  Japan"  (Rein); 
"  Notes  on  Shippo  "  (Bowes)  ;  "  Ornamental  Arts  of  Japan  " 


236        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

( Audsley)  ;   "  L' Art  Japonais  "  (Gonse)  ;    "  Japan   and  its 

Art"  (Huish). 
Music :    **  The   Music   and  Musical    Instruments    of    Japan " 

(Piggott);  "  Miyako-Dori "  (Bevan). 
Poetry:  "  History  of  Japanese  Literature  "  (Aston)  ;  "Classical 

Poetry  of  the  Japanese  "  (Chamberlain)  ;  "  Japanese  Odes  " 

(Dickins). 
Drama:  "  Artistic  Japan,"  vol.  v.  (edited  by  S.  Bing). 
Flower  Arrangement :  "The  Flowers  of  Japan  and  the  Art  of 

Floral  Arrangement  "  (Conder). 
Landscape- Gardening:      "  Landscape- Gardening     in     Japan" 

(Conder). 
Tea  Ceremonial:  "The  Book  of  Tea"  (Okakura). 
General:  "  An  Artist's  Letters  from  Japan  "  (La  Farge);  "  Jin- 
rikisha  Days  in  Japan  "  (Scidmore). 


CHAPTER  XVIV 
DISESTABLISHMENT   OF   SHINTO 

Outline  of  Topics:  Religion  in  Japan;  Shinto;  a  ''natural 
religion  " ;  simple  services ;  religious  patriotism ;  perfunctory  wor- 
ship ;  Shinto  doomed  "  as  a  religion  " ;  secularization  of  Ise  shrines ; 
element  of  embarrassment  to  Christians;  "worship"  C?)  of  Em- 
peror's portrait;  difficulties  in  translation  of  Christian  terms; 
method  of  reforms  in  Japan ;  future  of  Shintd.  —  Bibliography. 

IT  is  a  curious  fact  that  Japan  cannot  boast  of  an 
indigenous  religion,  or  of  much  original  mental 
or  moral  philosophy.  "  Shinto  "  (The  Gods' 
Way),  purely  Japanese  in  its  origin,  is  only  a  cult, 
a  system  of  worship,  not  a  religion,  or  even  a  phi- 
losophy. Buddhism  and  Confucianism  came  in  from 
China,  perhaps  through  Korea,  and  Christianity  en- 
tered from  Europe  and  America. 

Shinto  is  a  system  in  which  the  deification  and 
worship  of  heroes,  emperors,  family  ancestors,  and 
forces  of  nature  play  an  important  part.  It  has  no 
dogmas,  no  sacred  books,  no  moral  code,  "  no  philos- 
ophy, no  code  of  ethics,  no  metaphysics  " ;  it  sums  up 
its  theory  of  human  duty  in  the  following  injunction  : 
"  Follow  your  natural  impulses  and  obey  the  laws  of 

1  A  large  portion  of  this  chapter  is  reprinted,  by  permission, 
from  "The  Standard,"  Chicago. 


288   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

the  State.  "^  It  requires  of  its  adherents  nothing 
except  worship  at  certain  temples  or  shrines  on 
stated  days.  A  "pure  Shinto"  temple  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly plain  affair,  in  front  of  which,  at  a  little 
distance,  is  invariably  set  a  toriiy  or  arch.  Without 
idols,  the  temple  contains,  as  emblems  of  Shinto, 
strips  of  paper  hanging  from  a  wand,  together  with 
a  mirror.  The  form  of  ordinary  worship  is  simple : 
it  consists  of  washing  the  face,  or  hands,  or  both, 
with  holy  water;  of  ringing  a  bell,  or  clapping  the 
hands,  to  call  the  god's  attention;  of  casting  in  a 
coin  as  an  offering;  of  standing  with  clasped  hands 
during  a  short  prayer,  and  of  making  a  farewell  bow. 
This  ceremony  is  sufficient  to  "  cover  a  multitude  of 
sins  "  I  At  the  regular  festivals  there  are  special  and 
elaborate  services,  at  which  the  priests  (often  lay- 
men) officiate.  Pilgrimages  to  holy  spots,  usually 
"high  places,"  are  important  in  Shinto. 

But  Shinto  seems  destined  to  decay  as  naturally  as 
it  developed.  According  to  the  best  authorities,  it 
was,  in  the  original  and  purest  form,  ancestor- 
worship  combined  with  the  worship  of  nature.  That 
is  to  say,  it  arose  from  the  natural  reverence  paid  to 
ancestors,  whether  individual  or  national,  and  from 

1  "Shinto  signifies  character  in  the  highest  sense,  —  courage, 
courtesy,  honor,  and,  above  all  things,  loyalty.  The  spirit  of 
Shinto  is  the  spirit  of  filial  piety  [Lat.  pictas],  the  zest  of  duty, 
the  readiness  to  surrender  life  for  a  principle.  ...  It  is  the  docility 
of  the  child ;  it  is  the  sweetness  of  the  Japanese  woman.  ...  It  is 
religion  —  but  religion  transmuted  into  hereditary  moral  impulse  — 
religion  transmuted  into  ethical  instinct.  It  is  the  whole  emotional 
life  of  the  race,  —  the  Soul  of  Japan."  —  Hearn. 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  239 

the  awe  inspired  by  the  wonderful  and  frequently- 
horrible  forces  of  nature.  In  time  these  two  ele- 
ments became  more  or  less  confused,  so  that  eventu- 
ally, in  some  cases,  national  ancestors  were  identified 
with  heavenly  bodies,  and  the  sun,  for  instance,  wor- 
shipped as  a  goddess,  was  called  the  special  ancestor 
of  the  Japanese  nation.  It  seems  proper,  therefore, 
to  call  Shinto,  so  far  as  the  word  "religion"  is  ap- 
plicable to  it,  a  "natural  religion"  in  more  senses 
than  one  of  the  word  "natural."^ 

It  has  just  been  intimated  that  the  word  "  religion  " 
is  not  in  all  points  applicable  to  Shinto.  It  has,  for 
instance,  no  dogmas  or  creed,  except  the  very  simple 
and  general  injunction:  "Follow  your  own  natural 
impulses  and  obey  the  laws  of  the  State."  Dr. 
Nitobe  says,  in  his  book  entitled  "  Bushido  " :  "  The 
tenets  of  Shintoism  cover  the  two  predominating 
features  of  the  emotional  life  of  our  race  —  patri- 
otism  and   loyalty."     Its   services  are  very  simple, 

1  "  Shinto  is  the  Japanese  conception  of  the  cosmos.  It  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  worship  of  nature  and  of  their  own  ancestors.  .  .  . 
To  the  Japanese  eye,  the  universe  itself  took  on  the  paternal  look. 
Awe  of  their  parents,  which  these  people  could  comprehend,  lent 
explanation  to  dread  of  nature,  which  they  could  not.  Quite  co- 
gently, to  their  minds,  the  thunder  and  the  typhoon,  the  sunshine 
and  the  earthquake,  were  the  work  not  only  of  anthropomorphic 
beings,  but  of  beings  ancestrally  related  to  themselves.  In  short, 
Shint5  ...  is  simply  the  patriarchal  principle  projected  without 
perspective  into  the  past,  dilating  with  distance  into  deity." 

"  Shint5  is  so  Japanese  it  will  not  down.  It  is  the  faith  of  these 
people's  birthright,  not  of  their  adoption.  Its  folk-lore  is  what 
they  learned  at  the  knee  of  the  race-mother,  not  what  they  were 
taught  from  abroad.  Buddhist  they  are  by  virtue  of  belief ;  Shinto 
by  virtue  of  being."  — Lowell,  "The  Soul  of  the  Far  East." 


240   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  consist  of  the  presentation  of  offerings  and  the 
recital  of  formal  addresses,  which  are  partly  praises 
and  partly  prayers.  In  one  ritual,  that  of  purifica- 
tion, it  is  true  that  there  may  be  seen  signs  of  moral 
instruction ;  but  this  is  now  a  mere  formal  ceremony, 
performed,  perhaps,  only  twice  a  year  in  some,  not 
all,  of  the  principal  Shinto  shrines.  Certainly,  in 
the  sense  that  Christianity,  with  its  creeds,  whether 
simple  or  complex,  its  moral  doctrines,  its  spiritual 
teachings,  its  outlook  into  the  future  life,  its  re- 
straining and  uplifting  influence  upon  the  individual 
and  society,  is  called  a  religion,  Shinto  has  no  right 
to  that  appellation. 

But  as  a  system  of  national  as  well  as  of  individ- 
ual worship,  including  prayers  to  the  deified  an- 
cestors or  national  heroes  or  to  the  personified  and 
deified  powers  of  nature,  Shinto  is  properly  a  re- 
ligion. And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  it  has  all  the 
force  of  a  religion.  One  needs  to  stand  but  a  few 
minutes  in  front  of  a  Shinto  shrine  to  observe  that 
the  mode  of  worship  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
before  a  Buddhist  temple.  This  does  not  refer  to 
the  regular  public  ceremonies  at  stated  times,  but 
to  the  brief  ordinary  visits  of  the  common  people  to 
the  shrines  and  temples  as  they  may  be  passing  by. 
In  their  hearts  there  is  apparently  as  much  "wor- 
ship "  and  "reverence  '*  in  one  case  as  in  the  other. 
And  this  superstitious  attitude  of  the  people  toward 
Shinto  has  been  utilized  on  more  than  one  occasion 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  241 

in  political  measures,  so  that  Shinto  has  often  been 
nothing  but  a  political  engine.  "  In  its  lower  forms 
[it]  is  blind  obedience  to  governmental  and  priestly 
dictates."  It  has  thus  been  unfairly  used  as  a  test 
of  so-called  patriotism,  a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  patri- 
otism, founded  on  mythology  and  superstition.  Thus 
Shinto  has  been,  as  Sir  Ernest  Satow  called  it,  "in 
a  certain  sense,  a  state  religion,  since  its  temples  are 
maintained  out  of  the  imperial  and  local  revenues, 
and  the  attendance  of  the  principal  officials  is  re- 
quired by  court  etiquette  at  certain  annual  festivals 
which  are  celebrated  at  the  palace."  Similarly,  local 
officials  are  required  to  be  present  and  "worship" 
on  certain  occasions  at  local  shrines.  As  Dr.  Griffis 
has  remarked,  "To  those  Japanese  whose  first  idea 
of  duty  is  loyalty  to  the  Emperor,  Shinto  thus  becomes 
a  system  of  patriotism  exalted  to  a  religion." 

But  the  relation  of  the  educated  classes  toward 
Shinto  is  quite  different.  A  knowledge  of  science 
has  shown  the  foolishness  of  personifying  and  deify- 
ing the  forces  of  nature  and  of  worshipping  foxes, 
badgers,  and  other  animals.  Moreover,  the  scientific 
study  of  the  Japanese  annals  has  revealed  the  ab- 
surdities of  much  that  had  been  accepted  as  real 
history,  and  has  shown  that  the  so-called  historical 
foundation  of  Shinto  is  a  mass  of  myths  and  legends. 
The  well-educated  Japanese  do  not  believe  the  non- 
sense of  the  "  Kojiki "  ^  upon  which  the  claim  that  the 
Emperor  should  be  worshipped  is  based ;  but  few,  if 

1  The  earliest  sacred  book.    The  ancient  records. 
16 


242   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

any,  dare  to  give  public  expression  to  their  own  pri- 
vate opinions,  for  they  love  life  and  reputation  more 
than  liberty  of  speech.  And  many  of  those  who 
really  know  better  not  only  will  employ  the  old  fic- 
tions in  word  of  mouth  or  on  the  written  page,  but 
will  even  visit  shrines  and  go  perfunctorily  through 
the  forms  of  worship. 

Now  it  is  quite  evident  that,  ever  since  the  opening 
of  Japan  and  the  consequent  spread  of  popular  edu- 
cation, the  diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge,  and  the 
propagation  of  Christianity,  Shinto  as  a  religion  has 
been  doomed.  Not  merely  monotheism,  but  also 
science,  ridiculed  the  Shinto  doctrine  of  myriads  of 
gods ;  and  even  atheism  and  agnosticism,  so  heartily 
welcomed  in  Japan,  would  not  lend  any  support  to 
the  superstitions  of  Shinto.  Ever  since  the  Restora- 
tion of  1868,  which  was,  of  course,  a  revival  of  pure 
political  Shinto,  frequent  attempts  have  been  made 
to  have  Shinto  declared,  in  actual  fact,  by  special 
enactment,  the  State  religion  of  Japan.  But  reli- 
gious Shinto  has  been  suffering  a  gradual  decline,  as 
Dr.  Griffis  shows  in  "The  Religions  of  Japan."  For 
a  little  while  the  council  that  had  charge  of  Shinto 
matters  "  held  equal  authority  with  the  great  council 
of  the  government.  Pretty  soon  the  first  step  down- 
ward was  taken,  and  from  a  supreme  council  it  was 
made  one  of  the  ten  departments  of  the  government. 
In  less  than  a  year  followed  another  retrograde  move- 
ment, and  the  department  was  called  a  board.  Finally, 
in  1877,  the  board  became  a  bureau."     And,  in  the 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  243 

closing  year  of  the  nineteenth  century,  another  step 
downward  was  taken  by  making  a  complete  official 
demarcation  between  Shinto  shrines  and  Buddhist 
temples.  Hereafter  Buddhist  and  Christian  matters 
come  under  the  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  Religions; 
while  Shinto  affairs  are  entirely  secularized  and  set 
apart  under  a  Bureau  of  Shrines.  This  is  the  final 
step  in  the  official  disestablishment  of  Shinto.  It 
is  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  civilization  and 
Christianity  in  Japan,  for  it  has  evidently  been  made 
necessary  by  the  spread  of  the  gospel ;  and  this  move 
is  fraught  with  deep  significance,  with  great  promise 
and  encouragement. 

Even  before  this  official  action  had  been  taken,  the 
necessity  for  completely  secularizing  Shinto  had  been 
fully  recognized  within  its  own  circles.  In  1899 
the  officials  of  the  Great  Shrine  at  Ise,  in  which  are 
preserved  the  mirror,  the  sword,  and  the  jewel,  the 
three  sacred  treasures  of  Shinto,  took  the  proper 
legal  steps  to  become  a  secular  organization.  They 
asserted  that  Shinto  is  "merely  a  mechanism  for 
keeping  generations  in  touch  with  generations,  and 
preserving  the  continuity  of  the  nation's  veneration 
for  its  ancestors."  Shinto  could  never  hope  "to 
stand  as  a  religion,"  but  it  might  stand  "as  the 
embodiment  of  a  national  sentiment."  According  to 
the  editor  of  the  "Japan  Mail,"  the  leaders  of  Shint5 
have  "shown  great  astuteness  "  in  taking  that  step; 
and  others  have  even  suggested  that  they  have  very 
shrewdly  laid  a  most  dangerous  trap  for  Christians 


244   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

by  attempting  to  deprive  them  of  a  valid  reason  for 
not  participating  in  Shintd  ceremonies. 

And  there  is  no  doubt  that  there  still  remains  an 
element  of  embarrassment  to  Christians.  Nominally 
and  theoretically,  Shinto  is  no  longer  a  religion ;  it  is 
"  merely  a  cult  embodying  the  principle  of  veneration 
for  ancestors,  and  having  for  its  chief  function  the 
performance  of  rites  in  memory  of  the  [so-called] 
divine  ancestors  of  the  empire's  sovereigns."  But 
the  common  people  will  continue  to  regard  Shinto 
in  the  light  of  a  religion,  and  to  worship  and  pray  at 
the  shrines.  Until,  therefore,  the  masses  are  edu- 
cated up  to  a  knowledge  of  the  distinctions  between 
"human"  and  "divine,"  "secular"  and  "religious," 
"  reverence  "  and  "  worship, "  they  will  continue  to 
bow  their  heads,  clap  their  hands,  and  mumble 
their  prayers  at  Shinto  shrines.  Christians,  of 
,  course,  ought  not  to  indulge  in  such  practices ;  but, 
because  such  things  are  done  by  those  who  do  not 
know  better,  should  they  refrain  entirely  from  par- 
ticipating in  national  celebrations  and  patriotic  cere- 
monies ?  Or  should  they,  regardless  of  what  others 
may  be  doing,  take  part  in  whatever  way  their  con- 
sciences will  allow?  Is  this  a  case  in  which  Paul's 
instructions  about  eating  meat  and  things  offered  to 
idols  would  be  applicable  ? 

This  is  really  much  the  same  question  that 
arose  some  years  ago  with  reference  to  bowing  be- 
fore the  Emperor's  portrait.  To  that  ceremony  the 
common  word  for  "  worship  "   [reihai  or  hairei]  was 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  245 

applied;  and  therefore  many  Christians  conscien- 
tiously refused  to  perform  it.  Now,  those  Japanese 
words  are  composed  of  m,  a  very  common  term  in- 
dicating any  polite  act,  and  hai^  which  in  its  original 
ideographic  form  was  written  with  a  picture  of  two 
hands  clasped,  and  therefore  naturally  indicates 
worship.  But  this  word  hai  is  an  integral  part  of 
such  words  as  haiJcen  (a  very  polite  expression  for 
"please  let  me  see"),  haishaku  ("please  lend"), 
haikei  (the  humble  phrase  at  the  beginning  of  a 
letter).  In  all  these  cases  the  word  hai  expresses 
a  humble  request  to  a  superior,  originally  made  with 
clasped  hands  and  bowed  head.  These  words  are 
in  daily  use  by  Christians,  including  missionaries, 
without  conscientious  scruples,  because  they  are  ap- 
parently cases  of  what  rhetoricians  call  "  fossil  meta- 
phors." It  would  appear,  then,  that  hai^  which 
gives  reihai  its  significance  of  "worship,"  may  have 
shades  of  meaning,  just  as  we  speak,  not  only  of  the 
"worship  of  the  one,  true  God,"  but  also  of  "hero- 
worship."  It  is,  in  fact,  a  question  of  terms  in  a 
language  and  among  a  people  where  such  fine  dis- 
tinctions are  not  drawn  between  the  secular  and  the 
religious,  the  common  and  the  uncommon,  the  holy 
and  the  unholy.  In  a  country  where  each  person 
must  humble  himself  before  others  and  must  express 
that  humility  in  words  and  deeds  that  to  Occidentals 
suggest  Uriah  Heep,  and  where  profound  bows  are 
the  most  ordinary  occurrence,  bowing  to  the  Em- 
peror's   portrait  is   scarcely   "worship."      It  is   no 


246   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

more  "worship  "  or  "idolatry  "  than  baring  the  head 
when  the  United  States  flag  was  raised  at  San  Juan 
de  Porto  Rico,  or  when  the  British  sing  "  God  Save 
the  King,"  or  than  standing  with  bared  and  bowed 
heads  before  an  open  grave.  To  repeat,  the  whole 
question  is  largely  one  of  terms  in  a  language  under- 
going great  transitions  and  modifications  through 
contact  with  Occidental  thought  and  speech. 

In  this  connection  the  whole  subject  of  trans- 
lation comes  up.  What  Japanese  words,  for  in- 
stance, shall  be  used  for  "God,"  "spirit,"  "love," 
"home,"  "worship,"  "personal,"  and  many  other 
terms?  The  ideas  included  in  such  words  do  not 
exist  in  the  Japanese  mind,  and  therefore  there 
are  no  absolutely  equivalent  terms.  Either  old 
words  of  lower  concepts  must  be  used,  or  words 
must  be  coined;  in  either  case  the  full  idea  of  the 
original  is  not  transferred  to  the  Japanese  mind 
without  considerable  explanation.  But  this  is  a 
digression. 

This  disestablishment  of  Shinto  is  another  instance 
of  the  peculiar  method  by  which  reforms,  whether 
political,  social,  or  moral,  are  usually  accomplished 
in  Japan.  In  Occidental  nations  political  reforms 
have  been  initiated  by  the  people,  by  the  power  of 
public  opinion ;  and  popular  rights  have  been  wrested 
by  the  ruled  from  the  unwilling  rulers,  whether  feudal 
barons  or  monarchs.  But  in  Japan  all  the  political 
and  social  reforms  of  the  last  few  decades  have  been 
imposed   by  the  ruling  classes  upon  the  indifferent 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  24T 

people.  It  is  probably  true  that  the  great  mass  of  the 
Japanese  care  very  little,  if  any,  whether  their  gov- 
ernment is  an  absolute  or  a  constitutional  monarchy; 
know  scarcely  anything  about  the  cabinet,  the  Im- 
perial Diet,  the  new  codes,  and  such  things;  and  are 
contented  with  the  old  customs,  costumes,  ceremo- 
nies, and  religions.  They  are  not  like  that  Irishman 
who,  when  he  was  asked,  immediately  upon  landing 
in  New  York,  to  which  party  he  belonged,  promptly 
replied,  "I'm  agin  the  government."  The  common 
people  of  Japan  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  are 
always  "for  the  government";  that  is,  they  favor 
the  established  order,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  do 
not  want  any  disturbance.  Or  it  may,  perhaps,  be 
nearer  the  truth  to  say  that  they  keep  "the  noiseless 
tenor  of  their  way,"  regardless  of  what  changes  may 
be  transpiring  in  social  and  political  Japan.  But, 
although  they  are  natural  conservatives,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  able  to  adapt  themselves  gradually  to 
the  new  order  of  things,  as  soon  as  these  are  firmly 
established.  Now  this  disestablishment  of  Shinto 
has  not  come  about,  as  idolatry  has  often  been  over- 
thrown in  the  isles  of  the  sea,  in  accordance  with 
the  demands  of  the  people,  who  had  learned  better 
from  the  teachings  of  Christianity  and  modern 
science;  but  it  has  been  carried  out  somewhat  as  a 
political  measure  by  the  government,  and  the  people 
must  still  be  educated  up  to  an  understanding  of  the 
new  status  of  Shinto. 

But,  although  Shinto  will  continue  for  some  time 


248   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

to  be  considered  a  religion  by  the  mass  of  the  people, 
and  thus  the  full  results  of  disestablishment  cannot 
be  immediately  realized ;  yet  this  official  removal  of 
Shinto  from  the  position  of  a  religion  is  one  of  the 
most  important  reforms  of  this  great  reform  era  in 
Japan.  When  Constantino  disestablished  the  religions 
of  Greece  and  Rome  by  establishing  Christianity  as 
the  religion  of  his  empire,  the  worship  of  Zeus  (or 
Jupiter),  of  Aphrodite  (or  Venus),  and  of  the  other 
deities  of  Olympus,  did  not  cease  at  once;  nor,  on 
the  other  hand,  did  the  efforts  of  Julian  succeed  in 
reviving  the  old  idolatry.  Shinto  will  linger  and 
continue  to  attract  thousands  of  worshippers  to  its 
shrines;  but  it  is  doomed  to  die  as  perished  the 
Greek  and  Roman  religions.  Amaterasu,  the  sun- 
goddess,  will  yet  have  her  votaries  in  Japan  as  had 
Apollo  in  Greece  and  Rome;  but  the  rays  of  the 
Sun  of  Righteousness  will  dispel  the  darkness  of 
this  myth.  The  farmers  will  continue  to  make  their 
offerings  and  their  petitions  at  the  shrines  of  Inari 
Sama,  the  rice-god,  and  will  attempt  to  propitiate 
the  wrath  of  the  god  of  thunder  and  lightning;  but 
they  will  gradually  learn  of  the  Almighty,  who  send- 
eth  seed-time  and  harvest,  lightning  and  thunder,  rain 
and  sunshine.  The  sailors  and  fishermen  will  con- 
tinue their  worship  at  the  shrines  of  their  special 
deities,  until  they  know  of  Him  who  maketh  the  seas 
to  be  calm  and  the  winds  to  be  still.  Therefore,  al- 
though the  Japanese  government  has  pronounced  the 
sentence  of  death  upon  the  Shinto  religion,  the  exe- 


DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  SHINTO  249 

cution  of  that  sentence  will  be  a  very  gradual  and 
prolonged  affair.  In  the  mean  time  it  behooves  the 
disciples  of  Jesus  Christ  to  be  unremitting  in  their 
labors  of  teaching  the  Japanese  people  to  substitute 
for  "the  Way  of  the  Gods  "  the  religion  of  Him  who 
said,  "I  am  the  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See  Rein's  *'  Japan,"  Peery's  "  Gist  of  Japan,"  Gary's  "Japan 
and  its  Regeneration,"  Knapp's  "  Feudal  and  Modern  Japan," 
and  Lowell's  «  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  pp.  162-193.  But  espe- 
cially valuable  are  "The  Religions  of  Japan"  (Griffis),  "The 
Development  of  Religion  in  Japan"  (Knox),  "Occult  Japan" 
(Lowell),  Hearn's  works,  and  papers  by  Sir  Ernest  Satow  and 
Dr.  Florenz  in  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vols,  ii., 
iii.  (App.),  vii.,  ix.,  xxvii.  These  references  are,  of  course,  on 
the  general  subject  of  Shinto  rather  than  the  special  topic  of 
this  chapter. 

Aston 's  "  Shinto:  The  Way  of  the  Gods"  (1905)  is,  of  course, 
most  excellent.  Hozumi's  "Ancestor- Worship  and  Japanese 
Law"  is  very  valuable. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CONFUCIANISM,   BUSHIDO,   BUDDHISM 

Outline  of  Topics:  Confucianism;  "Five  Relations";  Bu- 
shido ;  influences  of  Confucianism  and  Bushidd,  —  Buddhism ;  gen- 
eral view ;  chief  sects ;  Tendai  sect ;  Shingon  sect ;  Zen  sect ; 
Jodo  sect ;  Shin  sect ;  Nichiren  sect ;  New  Buddhism ;  influences  of 
Buddhism  ;  corruption  of  Buddhism ;  control  of  cemeteries  ;  mixed 
sects.  —  Relations  of  Shinto,  Confucianism,  and  Buddhism.  —  Re- 
ligious toleration.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  philosophical  teachings  of  Confucius 
were  very  popular  in  Japan  among  the  edu- 
cated classes,  who,  caring  little  for  religion 
were  content  to  supplement  Shinto  with  Confu- 
cianism. Its  moral  code  undoubtedly  proved  bene- 
ficial to  Japan  in  many  respects ;  but  now  it  is 
practically  superseded  by  the  doctrines  of  Western 
atheistic,  agnostic,  and  materialistic  philosophy. 

The  "five  relations"  (^gorin),  around  which  clus- 
tered the  Confucian  ethical  code,  were  those  of 
Father  and  Son,  Ruler  and  Ruled,  Husband  and 
Wife,  Elder  and  Younger  Brothers,  and  Friends.  In 
China,  "  filial  piety,"  the  great  virtue  of  the  first 
relation,  was  the  foundation  of  the  whole  system; 
but  in  Japanese  Confucianism  this  was  relegated 
to  the  second  place,  and  "  loyalty,"  the  great  virtue 
of  the   second   relation,  was   put  first.     The   scope 


CONFUCIANISM,  BUSHIDO,   BUDDHISM     251 

of  this  relation,  moreover,  was  quite  wide;  it  in- 
cluded not  only  the  relation  between  the  sovereign 
and  his  subjects,  but  also  that  between  a  lord  and 
his  retainers,  and  even  that  between  any  master  and 
servants.  The  virtue  of  the  third  relation  was  known 
as  "distinction,"  which  practically  meant  that  each 
should  know  and  keep  his  or  her  own  place;  that 
of  the  fourth  relation  was  "order,"  which  insisted 
upon  the  primacy  of  seniority  in  age;  and  between 
friends  the  typical  virtue  was  "faith,"  or  "trust," 
or  "confidence." 

The  word  Bushido  means,  literally,  "  The  Warrior's 
Way,"  which  was  the  code  of  ethics  that  prevailed 
in  Feudal  Japan,  and  whose  influence  is  still  felt, 
although  waning,  in  Modern  Japan.  It  was  the 
moral  code  of  Japanese  chivalry,  of  the  knight  and 
of  the  gentleman.  It  has  not  inaptly  been  styled 
"  Japonicized  Confucianism,"  for  it  was  chiefly  Con- 
fucian in  its  constitution.  But  it  gathered  elements 
from  Shinto  and  Buddhism:  from  the  latter  it  re- 
ceived fatalism  (Stoicism);  and  from  the  former  it 
received  loyalty  and  patriotism,  which  meant  prac- 
tically the  same  thing.  It  ignored  personal  chastity 
(except  in  women) ;  it  encouraged  suicide  and  re- 
venge; but  it  emphasized  justice,  courage,  benevo- 
lence, politeness,  veracity,  honor,  and  self-control. 
One  of  its  most  powerful  principles  was  giri  (right 
reason),  which  is  difficult  to  translate  or  define, 
but  comes  pretty  close  to  what  we  call  "  duty "  or 
"the  right."     This  still  maintains  a  potent  influence 


252    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

in  New  Japan,  and  often  accounts  for  erratic  pro- 
cedures. Indeed,  so-called  peculiarities  of  the  Jap- 
anese cannot  be  understood  without  a  knowledge 
of  Bushido,  which  has  been  analyzed  in  a  flattering 
manner  in  Dr.  Nitobe's  book,  entitled  "  Bushido, 
the  Soul  of  Japan." 

Inasmuch  as  the  influence  of  Confucianism  in 
Japan  was  chiefly  manifested  through  Bushido,  to 
be  correct,  we  ought  to  speak  of  their  joint  influ- 
ences. But  since  Bushido,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
was  largely  Confucianism,  slightly  modified  to  suit 
the  needs  of  the  Japanese  spirit  {Yamato-damashii)^ 
we  shall,  for  convenience,  follow  other  writers  in 
using  the  term  "  Confucianism."  Rein  testifies  that 
in  Japan  "  widely  diffused  religious  indifference  and 
formal  atheism  are  the  consequences  "  of  the  pursuit 
of  Confucianism.  Chamberlain  says  that  "during 
the  two  hundred  years  that  followed,  the  whole 
intellect  of  the  country  was  moulded  by  Confucian 
ideas."  Griffis  bears  similarly  strong  testimony,  and 
emphasizes  the  fact  that  "  all  Japanese  social,  official, 
intellectual,  and  literary  life  was  permeated  with  the 
new  spirit  of  Confucian  thought."  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  when  Japan  was  opened  to  the  world, 
and  Occidental  learning  and  literature  poured  in, 
the  materialism  and  the  agnosticism  of  the  West  met 
with  a  sympathetic  reception. 

Buddhism  is  the  accepted  faith  of  the  great  mass 
of  the  Japanese  people.  It  was  introduced  into 
Japan  from   Korea,  in  the  sixth  century  a.  d.,  and 


GROUP   OF   PILGRIMS,    AND    BUDDHIST    PRIESTS 


?/c    ',' 


CONFUCIANISM,  BUSHIDO,  BUDDHISM     253 

spread  rapidly.  It  is  now  divided  in  Japan  into 
eight  sects,  with  various  sub-sects,  which  bring  the 
grand  total  up  to  about  thirty-five.  These  sects 
vary,  some  in  doctrines  and  others  in  rituals,  and 
are  even  quite  hostile  to  each  other.  The  Shin  sect 
deserves,  perhaps,  a  special  mention,  because  it  op- 
poses celibacy  and  asceticism,  does  not  restrict  the 
diet,  worships  only  one  Buddha,  and  preaches  salva- 
tion by  faith.  It  is  often  called  "  the  Protestantism 
of  Buddhism."  Buddhist  temples  are  usually  mag- 
nificent structures,  and  the  ritual  is  elaborate;  but, 
in  spite  of  the  assistance  of  Colonel  Olcott,  Sir 
Edwin  Arnold,  and  others,  it  is  fast  losing  ground. 
It  has  degenerated  and  become  idolatry  and  super- 
stition. It  keeps  hold  of  the  ignorant  masses,  and 
even  of  intelligent  persons,  chiefly  because  it  has 
control  of  funeral  rites  and  cemeteries.  It  has  been 
said  that  a  Japanese  is  a  Shintoist  in  life  and  a 
Buddhist  at  death;  and  it  is  also  true  that  he  may 
be  during  life,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  a  devotee 
of  both.  Buddhism  may  suffice  for  a  people  who 
are  crushed  under  an  Oriental  despotism ;  but  Chris- 
tianity alone  is  the  religion  of  liberty  and  progress. 
Buddha  may  be  "the  light  of  Asia,"  but  Jesus 
Christ  is  "the  light  of  the  world." 

Nanjo,  the  historian  of  Japanese  Buddhism,  has 
written  a  "  History  of  the  Twelve  Japanese  Buddhist 
Sects " ;  but  as  some  of  these  are  now  defunct,  it  is 
sufficient  to  notice  here  only  eight  principal  sects,  as 
follows:    Tendai,   Shingon,    Zen,  Jodo,  Shin,  Nichi- 


254   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ren,  Ji,  Yuzu  Nembutsu.  Moreover,  as  the  last  two 
of  these  are  comparatively  insignificant,  the  mere 
mention  of  their  names  is  enough,  but  a  little  more 
should  be  said  concerning  each  of  the  other  six. 

1.  The  Tendai  sect  is  the  oldest,  but  now  ranks 
among  the  lowest.  It  belongs  to  the  school  which 
"  sought  to  define  truth  and  to  find  salvation  in  knowl- 
edge " :  but  as  the  truth  was  often  too  abstruse  for 
the  mass,  it  must  be  dealt  out,  by  means  of  pious 
devices,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  learner;  so 
that  the  disciples  of  this  sect  have  been  called  the 
Jesuits  of  Buddhism. 

2.  To  the  same  school  belongs  the  Shingon  sect, 
which  is  only  a  year  younger  than  the  former  sect  and 
now  ranks  third  in  the  list.  It  was  founded  by  the 
celebrated  priest  Kobo  Daishi ;  and  its  doctrines  also 
are  quite  abstruse.  This  is  the  sect  which  is  respon- 
sible for  that  mixing  of  Shinto  and  Buddhism  that 
prevailed  for  so  many  centuries  by  the  adoption  of 
Shinto  deities  into  the  Buddhist  pantheon.  These 
believers  are  sometimes  called  the  Gnostics  of 
Buddhism. 

3.  The  Zen  sect  represents  the  school  which  teaches 
that  "  abstract  contemplation  leads  to  a  knowledge  of 
saving  truth."  "  Look  carefully  within,  and  there  you 
will  find  the  Buddha."  This  sect  arose  probably  "  out 
of  a  reaction  against  the  multiplication  of  idols,"  and 
was  "  a  return  to  simpler  forms  of  worship  and  con- 
duct"; therefore  its  disciples  have  been  called  "  the 
Quakers  of  Japanese  Buddhism.'*     Others  call  them 


CONFUCIANISM,  BUSHIDO,  BUDDHISM     255 

*'  the  Japanese  Quietists  "  or  "  the  Japanese  Mystics." 
This  is  now  the  largest  Buddhist  sect. 

4.  A  third  school,  teaching  that  salvation  was  to  be 
obtained  only  through  the  works  of  another,  has  been 
represented  by  two  sects,  the  Jodo  and  the  Shin.  The 
former,  which  now  ranks  fourth,  was  founded  upon  a 
very  simple  doctrine,  with  an  easy  rule  of  life,  that  is, 
the  frequent  repetition  of  the  invocation  Namu  Amida 
Butsu,  "  Hail  to  Amida  the  Buddha."  These  Bud- 
dhists use  a  double  rosary. 

5.  The  Shin  sect,^  which  sprung  out  of  the  Jodo 
sect,  is  that  of  the  Japanese  Reformers  or  Protestants. 
In  numerical  strength  it  is  second  to  the  Zen  sect,  but 
in  real  power  and  influence  it  is  facile  princeps.  Its 
priests  are  allowed  to  marry,  and  to  eat  flesh  and  fish. 
It  teaches  that  morality  is  as  important  as  faith ;  or, 
in  quite  familiar  words,  that  "  faith  without  works  is 
dead."  It  is  monotheistic,  as  it  worships  only  one 
Buddha.  It  alone  of  all  Buddhist  sects  provides  a 
way  of  salvation  for  women.  It  upholds  a  high 
standard  of  education,  carries  on  vigorous  missions 
in  China  and  Korea,  and  has  priests  even  in 
America. 

6.  The  sect  founded  by  the  priest  Nichiren  and 
named  for  him  is  not  large,  but  very  radical  and 
influential.  In  their  controversial  and  uncompro- 
mising attitude  toward  other  religions  or  even  other 
sects  of  Buddhism,  the  disciples  of  the  "  fiery  Nichi- 

1  See  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vols.  xiv.  and  xvii., 
papers  on  "  Shinshiu  "  by  Troup. 


256   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ren"  have  been  called  "the  Jesuits  of  Buddhism." 
Their  invocation  is  Namu  Myoho  Renge  Kyo  (Hail 
to  the  Doctrine  of  the  Lotus  of  the  Wonderful 
Law).  Their  doctrine  is  complete  pantheism ;  as 
Dr.  Griffis  expresses  it,  Nichiren  "  was  destined  to 
bring  religion,  not  only  down  to  men,  but  even 
down  to  the  beasts  and  the  mud." 

Of  all  these  sects,  the  only  one  which  has  been 
appreciably  influenced  by  contact  with  Western  civil- 
ization and  conflict  with  Christianity  is  the  Shin  sect. 
One  type  of  New  Buddhism  tries  to  ally  itself  with 
the  doctrines  of  scientific  evolution.  Another  t}^e 
has  learned  lessons  from  Christian  activity  in  Japan, 
and  is  putting  forth  its  energies  in  the  direction  of 
philanthropic  and  educational  institutions ;  so  that  it 
has  its  hospitals,  magazines,  schools,  and,  to  balance 
the  Young  Men's'  Christian  Association,  its  Young 
Men's  Buddhist  Association,  with  summer  schools, 
etc.     The  New  Buddhism  will  die  hard. 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  upon  the  Japanese 
people  must  not  be  underestimated,  especially  be- 
cause it  is  still  manifest,  to  a  high  degree,  even  in 
New  Japan.  Chamberlain  says :  ^  "  All  education 
was  for  centuries  in  Buddhist  hands,  as  was  the 
care  of  the  poor  and  sick ;  Buddhism  introduced 
art,  introduced  medicine,  moulded  the  folk-lore  of 
the  country,  created  its  dramatic  poetry,  deeply  in- 
fluenced politics  and  every  sphere  of  social  and 
intellectual  activity.     In  a  word.  Buddhism  was  the 

1  "  Tilings  Japanese." 


CONFUCIANISM,  BUSHIDO,  BUDDHISM      257 

teacher  under  whose  instruction  the  Japanese  nation 
grew  up."  Or,  as  Griffis  outlines  it,^  the  Bud- 
dhist missionaries  were  purveyors  of  civilization, 
ministers  of  art,  wielded  a  mighty  influence  in  mili- 
tary and  political  affairs,  transformed  the  manners 
and  customs,  inspired  a  tremendous  development  in 
education  and  literature ;  but  Buddhism  was  "  kind 
to  the  brute  and  cruel  to  man,"  neglected  charity 
and  philanthropy,  degraded  woman,  and  left  upon 
the  Japanese  character  the  blight  of  a  merciless  fatal- 
ism and  an  awful  pessimism  .2  It  created  "  habits  of 
gentleness  and  courtesy"  and  a  "spirit  of  hopeless 
resignation."  To  sum  up,  "  in  a  word.  Buddhism  is 
law,  but  not  gospel." 

At  present.  Buddhism  in  Japan  is  exceedingly  cor- 
rupt, is  losing  its  hold  upon  the  educated,  but  retains 
a  tremendous  influence  over  the  great  mass  of  the 
people.  The  majority  of  the  priests  are  ignorant, 
illiterate,  and  immoral,  "blind  leaders  of  the  blind." 
The  newspapers  of  the  day  are  unsparing  in  their 
denunciation  of  the  immoralities  of  the  priesthood. 
The  following  is  only  one  of  many  such  testimonies 

1  "  The  Religions  of  Japan." 

2  "Emotionally  its  tenets  do  not  at  bottom  satisfy  us  Occi- 
dentals, flirt  with  them  as  we  may.  Passivity  is  not  our  passion, 
preach  it  as  we  are  prone  to  do  each  to  his  neighbor.  Scientifi- 
cally, pessimism  is  foolishness,  and  impersonality  a  stage  in  devel- 
opment from  which  we  are  emerging,  not  one  into  which  we  shall 
ever  relapse.  As  a  dogma  it  is  unfortunate,  doing  its  devotee  in 
the  deeper  sense  no  good,  but  it  becomes  positively  faulty  when  it 
leads  to  practical  ignoring  of  the  mine  and  thine,  and  does  other 
people  harm."  —  Lowell. 

17 


258   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

by  ex-priests  :  "  Something  that  did  trouble  me  was 
the  growing  conviction  that  Buddhism  was  dead, 
that  it  had  reached  the  extremity  of  corruption. 
Strife  and  scandal  were  rife  everywhere.  The  chief 
priests  .  .  .  were  grasping  after  worldly  place  and 
prosperity.  Of  the  immorality  of  the  priests  it  makes 
me  blush  to  speak.  It  is  not  a  rare  thing  to  see  men 
with  shaven  heads  and  attired  in  black  garments 
wandering  about  in  prostitute  quarters,  or  to  find 
women  living  in  temples,  or  to  discover  fish-bones 
thrown  among  the  graves.  .  .  .  The  religion  has  no 
rallying  power  left,  no  inner  life.  ...  It  has  con- 
tributed much  to  our  civilization  in  the  past,  but 
it  is  now  exhausted." 

One  element  of  the  strong  hold  which  Buddhism 
had  and  has  upon  the  people,  even  upon  the  educated 
classes,  is  the  fact  that  so  many  cemeteries  have  been 
and  are  connected  with  Buddhist  temples.  It  used 
to  be  a  frequent  saying  that  a  Japanese  was  a  Shin- 
toist  in  life  and  a  Buddhist  in  death ;  because,  though 
he  may  never  have  espoused  Buddhism,  he  might 
be  laid  away  in  his  grave  according  to  Buddhist  cere- 
monies in  a  Buddhist  temple  and  a  Buddhist  grave- 
yard. But  this  control  of  the  cemeteries  seems  to 
be  passing  out  of  Buddhist  hands  into  the  care  of  the 
local  civil  authorities.  And  this  secularization,  if 
it  may  be  so  called,  of  the  graveyards  not  only  abol- 
ishes the  Buddhist  monopoly,  but  also  takes  away 
from  the  priests  the  golden  opportunity  of  extorting 
immense  fees.     The  Buddhist  control  of  cemeteries 


CONFUCLAJSriSM,   BUSHIDO,  BUDDHISM      259 

has  often  been  a  source  of  great  embarrassment  to 
Christians,  who  were  frequently  compelled  to  bury 
their  dead  under  Buddhist  auspices.  But  there  have 
lately  been  cases  where  no  objection  was  made  to 
the  burial  of  Christians  with  Christian  rites  in  a 
Buddhist  graveyard. 

This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  suitable  place  to  devote 
just  a  few  words  to  those  sects  which  are  compara- 
tively modern  in  their  origin,  and  are  so  composite  in 
their  doctrine  that  they  cannot  be  classed  under  either 
Shintd  or  Buddhism.  Indeed,  they  even  show  traces, 
though  perhaps  slight,  of  Christian  teaching;  and 
they  all  agree  in  the  one  doctrine  of  faith  healing. 
These  are  Remmo7i-kyd  (Doctrine  of  the  Lotus- 
Gate)  ,i  Kurozumi-kyo  (Doctrine  of  Kurozumi,  name, 
of  founder),^  and  Tenrikyo  (Doctrine  of  Heavenly 
Reason).^  The  first  and  the  last  were  founded  by 
ignorant  peasant  women,  and  win  adherents  mostly 
among  the  lowest  classes.  The  first  seems  more 
Buddhist  than  Shinto ;  the  second  seems  more  Shinto 
than  Buddhist;  while  the  third  is  the  one  which 
shows  most  plainly  traces  of  Christian  influence. 
In  Kurozumi-kyo^  the  Sun-goddess  is  the  chief  object 
of  devotion,  because  the  founder  was  healed  by  wor- 
shipping the  rising  sun.  Tenrikyo  is  growing  rapidly, 
and  is  exclusive  and  intolerant. 

1  See  papers  in  vol.  xxix.,  Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan, 
by  Lloyd  and  Greene. 

2  See  Gary's  article  in  **  Andover  Review,"  June,  1889. 

*  See  Greene's  paper  in  vol.  xxiii.,  Transactions  Asiatic  Society 
of  Japan. 


260   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  eclecticism  of  the  Japanese  in  intellectual 
matters  may  be  explained  by  calling  attention  to 
one  phase  of  their  attitude  toward  the  three  cults 
of  Old  Japan.  There  was  in  general  a  feeling  of 
"  with  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all "  ;  for 
the  three,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  overlapped  or 
supplemented  each  other.^  Shinto,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  only  a  national  cult;  Confucianism  was  a  phi- 
losophy of  the  relations  between  man  and  man  ;  while 
Buddhism  was  a  true  religion,  with  ideas  about  sin 
and  salvation.  As  another  has  summed  up  the  scope 
of  these  three  "ways,"  "Shintoism  furnishes  the 
object  of  worship,  Confucianism  offers  the  rules  of 
life,  and  Buddhism  supplies  the  way  of  future  salva- 
tion." It  was,  therefore,  possible  for  a  person  to  be 
a  disciple  of  two,  or  even  all,  of  these  "  doctrines  "  at 
one  and  the  same  time.  He  "  had  constantly  before 
his  eyes  the  emblems  of  each  of  these  religions.  In 
nearly  every  Samurai's  house  were  the  moral  books 
of  Confucius,  the  black  lacquered  wooden  tablets, 
inscribed  in  gold  with  the  Buddhist  names  of  his 
ancestors,  while  on  the  god-shelf  stood  the  idols  and 
symbols  of  Shinto." 

Therefore  there  are  to-day  probably  thousands  of 
Japanese  who  would  readily  accept  Christianity  by 
simply  adding  the  image  of  Jesus  to  their  present 
collection,  and  giving  it  equal  honor  with  those  of 
Buddha  and  their  ancestors.  They  might  easily 
incorporate  Jehovah  in  their  pantheon ;  but  they  find 
I  See  LoweU's  "  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  pp.  168, 1«9. 


CONFUCIANISM,  BUSHIDO,  BUDDHISM     261 

difficulty  in  appreciating  the  intolerance  of  Christians 
in  having  "  no  other  gods  besides  "  Jehovah. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The  references  for  this  chapter  are  in  general  the  same  as 
those  for  the  preceding  chapter,  except  that,  in  place  of  the 
special  papers  on  Shinto,  should  be  substituted  special  papers 
on  Confucianism  by  Knox  and  Haga  in  Transactions  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xx.  pp.  1-192;  on  Buddhism,  by  Lloyd  in 
Transactions  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  337-506, 
and  in  "Every  Day  Japan";  and  Nitobe's  "Bushido,  the  Soul 
of  Japan." 

"Japan  To-day"  (Scherer)  contains  an  interesting  chapter  (vi.) 
of  Buddhist  sermons :  see  also  Mitford's  "  Tales  of  Old  Japan." 

Dr.  Knox,  who  is  an  authority  on  Confucianism,  has  given  in 
his  "Japanese  Life  in  Town  and  Country"  a  few  chapters  (vi.- 
xi.)  of  interest  in  this  connection;  and  he  has  also  issued  (1907) 
a  valuable  book,  entitled  "The  Development  of  Religion  in 
Japan.*'   Lloyd's  "Creed  of  Half  Japan"  is  very  suggestive. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM 

Outline  of  Topics:  Mediaeval  Christianity;  Modern  Chris- 
tianity ;  missionaries ;  Japanese  Christians ;  Christian  literature ; 
kinds  and  methods  of  work ;  churches  and  chapels ;  Sunday- 
schools  ;  Christian  education ;  Christian  philanthropy ;  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  ; 
temperance  and  the  social  evil;  interdenominational  institutions; 
Japonicized  Christianity ;  Christianity  and  business ;  Sabbath ; 
Christianity  and  the  press ;  Christianity  and  Christians  in  politics ; 
simple  Christianity ;  status  of  Christianity.  —  Bibliography. 

THE  great  Jesuit  missionary,  Francis  Xavier, 
was  the  one  who  introduced  Christianity 
into  Japan,  in  1549;  and  the  labors  of 
himself  and  his  successors  were  so  faithful  and  suc- 
cessful, that  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  century 
there  were  about  1,000,000  Christians  in  Japan. 
But  political  complications,  internal  and  external, 
and  religious  jealousies,  brought  on  a  terrible  perse- 
cution, in  which  the  Church  was  practically  extin- 
guished.    In  1638  the  following  edict  was  issued:  — 

"  So  long  as  the  sun  shall  continue  to  warm  the  earth, 
let  no  Christian  be  so  bold  as  to  come  to  Japan  ;  and  let 
all  know  that  the  King  of  Spain  himself,  or  the  Chris- 
tian's God,  or  the  great  God  of  all,  if  he  dare  violate  this 
command,  shall  pay  for  it  with  his  head." 


JAPANESE  CHRISTENDOM  263 

And,  all  over  the  Empire,  on  special  bulletin- 
boards,  notices  were  published  to  the  effect  that 
this  edict  must  be  strictly  enforced.^  And  yet,  in 
spite  of  the  shrewd  measures  employed  to  detect 
Christians,  by  compelling  suspected  persons,  for  in- 
stance, to  trample  on  the  cross  or  be  crucified,  in 
some  sections  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  was 
handed  down  in  secret  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other; so  that,  when  these  edicts  were  removed  in 
1873,  to  a  few  here  and  there  Christianity  was  not  a 
strange  doctrine. ^ 

Just  as  soon  as  it  was  possible,  under  the  treaties 
of  1858,  for  foreigners  to  reside  in  Japan,  even  under 
restrictions,  missionaries  began  to  enter  (1859),  and 
are  now  numbered  by  the  hundreds.  This  count  in- 
cludes both  single  and  married  men,  the  wives  (for  in 
some  cases  the  wife  is  worth  more  than  the  husband), 
and  single  ladies. 

The  work  of  the  Greek  Church  has  been  carried 
on,  except  for  a  few  years,  so  far  as  foreigners  are 
concerned,  by  only  one  man,  and  even  now  has  only 
two  single  men  connected  with  the  mission;  but  the 
remarkable  personality  of  the  late  Bishop  Nicolai  and 
his  tact  in  utilizing  Japanese  workers  made  a  profound 
impression  and  neutralized  the  prejudice  arising  out 
of  political  animosity  to  Russia. 

1  "  The  wicked  sect  called  Christian  is  strictly  prohibited.  Sus- 
pected persons  are  to  be  reported  to  the  respective  officials,  and  re- 
wards will  be  given"  (1868). 

2  See  also  Murray's  "  Story  of  Japan,"  pp.  172-179,  240-268. 


264   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  both  male  and 
female,  have  been  carrying  on  their  work  with  the 
usual  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  in  a  quiet  and  un- 
ostentatious manner,  and  are  overcoming  to  a  large 
extent  the  inherited  prejudice  against  the  Catholic 
Christians  of  Old  Japan.  The  present  workers  are 
mostly  French,  and  number  more  than  200 ;  they  are 
scattered  all  over  the  empire,  even  in  small  places. 

The  principal  Protestant  denominations  repre- 
sented by  missionaries  in  Japan  are  the  Baptists, 
Congregationalists,  Disciples,  Episcopalians,  Friends, 
Lutherans,  Methodists,  Presbyterians  (including  Re- 
formed), Salvation  Army,  and  Universalists.  There 
are  in  all  over  thirty  different  Protestant  organi- 
zations at  work  in  Japan,  of  all  sorts  and  shades 
of  belief;  and  there  are  several  Independents,  or 
free  lances.  The  Protestant  missionaries  represent 
High  Church,  Low  Church,  and  No-Church  (Ply- 
mouth Brethren  et  al. ) ;  two  regular  Baptist  societies 
(but  only  one  Japanese  Church),  besides  Disciples 
and  Christians;  six  branches  of  the  Presbyterian 
family,  but  all  uniting  in  one  Japanese  Church ;  six 
branches  of  the  Methodist  family,  now  at  work,  with 
good  prospects  for  success,  to  effect  a  similar  union 
of  their  Japanese  churches;  three  kinds  of  Episco- 
palians, with  one  Japanese  Church;  Seventh-Day  Ad- 
ventists;  Do wie's  followers;  Faith  Mission;  Christian 
Alliance;  Scandinavian  Alliance;  German  Liberals; 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association ;  the  Women's 
Christian  Temperance  Union ;  the  Young  People's  So- 


JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM  265 

ciety  of  Christian  Endeavor;  —  in  short,  the  entire 
alphabet  for  a  complete  vocabulary  of  Christian 
activity.  And  the  Mormons,  too,  have  recently  sent 
emissaries  to  Japan. 

The  missionaries  have  been,  and  are,  a  mighty 
force  in  New  Japan,  not  merely  through  their 
preaching  of  the  Gospel,  but  also  through  their 
practising  of  the  Christian  virtues;  not  only  by 
their  teaching  of  all-sided  truth  and  wisdom,  but 
also  by  their  touching,  their  social  contact  with  the 
people;  not  only  by  their  logic,  but  also  by  their 
lives.  They  are  vivid  and  impressive  object-lessons 
of  the  ideal  Christian  life,  —  "  living  epistles,  known 
and  read  of  all  men."  They  are,  in  general,  well- 
educated  men  and  women,  a  noble  company,  re- 
spected and  loved  by  the  Japanese. 

The  Japanese  Christians  are  not  strong  numeri- 
cally ;  but  they  exercise  an  influence  entirely  out  of 
proportion  to  their  mere  numbers.  There  are  more 
than  180,000  nominal  Christians  of  all  kinds,  who 
may  represent  a  Christian  community  of  at  least 
twice  that  number.  But,  in  spite  of  their  faults 
and  failings,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  less  than 
fifty  years  removed  from  anti-Christian  influences 
of  the  worst  types,  and  are  still  surrounded  by  vari- 
ous hindrances,  1  they  are  also  a  noble  body  of  men 
and  women,  loved  and  honored  by  fellow-Japanese 
and  foreigners. 

The  Christian  literature  of  Japan  is  truly  volumi- 

1  See  Uchimura's  "  Diary  of  a  Japanese  Convert.*' 


266        A  HAISTDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

nous,  and  is  an  important  factor  in  moulding  and  ele- 
vating public  opinion.  The  Bible  has  been  translated 
into  the  Japanese  language,  and  is  widely  circulated ; 
it  is  published  in  many  forms  by  the  Bible  societies. 
Until  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
induce  a  non-Christian  bookseller  to  keep  the  Bible 
on  hand;  for  its  presence  in  his  store  might  preju- 
dice him  in  the  eyes  of  the  public,  and,  besides,  it 
was  not  easily  salable.  But  such  prejudice  has 
died  away,  and  a  demand  for  the  Bible  has  sprung 
up,  so  that  it  has  become  to  the  book-dealer  a  profit- 
able article  of  his  stock.  Commentaries  on  the  books 
of  the  Bible  and  theological  treatises  are  numerous, 
and  tracts  are  counted  by  the  millions.^  Christian 
magazines  and  books  are  published  and  obtain  cir- 
culation. The  Methodist  Publishing  House  and 
several  Japanese  companies  find  the  publication  of 
Christian  literature  a  profitable  venture.  There  are 
daily  newspapers,  owned  and  edited  by  Christians, 
who  use  their  columns  to  teach  Christian  ideals.  And 
in  1901  was  issued  a  popular  novel,  called  "  Ichi  jiku  " 
(The  Fig  Tree),  which  is  Christian  in  tone  and 
teaching. 

The  work  of  foreign  missionaries  and  native  Chris- 
tians in  Japan  may  be  divided  into  four  kinds :  evan- 
gelistic, educational,  publication,  and  philanthropic. 
It  is,  however,  very  difficult  and  extremely  unwise 
to  attempt  always  to  make  and  to  maintain  these  dis- 
tinctions ;  for  these  classes  of  work  often  overlap  and 
*  There  is  now  a  "Japan  Tract  Societj." 


JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM  267 

supplement  each  other.  The  work,  as  a  whole,  is 
carried  on  much  as  it  is  in  the  West,  except  that  the 
measures  and  methods  must  be  more  or  less  adapted 
to  the  peculiar  conditions  in  Japan.  ^  Thus  Chris- 
tianity is  represented  there  by  certain  institutions, 
which,  according  to  various  circumstances,  are  flour- 
ishing in  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  different  locali- 
ties, but  which,  as  a  whole,  are  exerting  a  tremendous 
influence  upon  the  nation  and  are  creating  the  ideals 
for  Twentieth  Century  Japan. 

There  are  hundreds  of  churches  and  chapels,  but 
they  are  seldom  indicated  by  spires  and  steeples  point- 
ing upward  as  signs  of  the  doctrine  which  leads  man- 
kind onward  and  upward.  For  that  reason  they  are 
not  generally  discovered  by  the  "globe-trotter,"  who 
tries  to  do  Japan  in  a  month  or  less,  and  is  not  usually 
looking  for  such  things,  but  yet  goes  back  to  report 
Christianity  a  failure  in  Japan.  Nevertheless,  the 
churches  and  chapels  are  there,  —  perhaps  in  out-of- 
the-way  places,  on  narrow  side-streets,  or  even  on 
the  principal  thoroughfares,  and  they  may  be  only 
ordinary  Japanese  houses;  but  the  work  is  going 
on  there,  quietly  and  unostentatiously.  There  is  also 
a  "gospel  ship"  (Fukuin  Maru),  cruising  about  the 
long-neglected  islands  of  the  Inland  Sea. 

1  It  is  unfortunate  that  there  are  any  missionaries,  with  more 
zeal  than  knowledge,  who  seem  to  forget  those  wise  words  of  Paul, 
the  courageous,  but  tactful,  and  therefore  successful,  preacher,  in 
1  Corinthians  ix.  22.  But  most  of  the  missionaries,  or  the  best  of 
them,  always  bear  in  mind  Christ's  own  instructions  in  Matthew 
X.  16. 


268   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

In  the  churches  and  chapels,  or  in  other  build- 
ings, or  even  in  the  private  houses  of  foreigners 
and  Japanese,  are  about  1,000  Sunday-schools,  where 
the  children  are  being  instructed  in  the  simplest  truths 
of  the  Bible.  They  may  not  understand  at  once  much 
of  what  they  hear ;  but  they  gradually  come  to  better 
and  better  ideas,  and  when  they  reach  years  of  un- 
derstanding, many  of  them  fully  accept  the  truths 
learned  in  Sunday-school.^ 

But  the  duty  of  the  Christian  propagandist  is  not 
completed  by  the  conversion  of  unbelievers ;  it  extends 
also  to  the  training  of  these  converts  into  a  useful 
body  of  Christian  citizens.  It  is  unwise  to  rely  en- 
tirely upon  public  education  by  a  system  so  well 
organized  even  as  that  of  Japan.  If  private  schools 
under  Christian  auspices  are  useful  in  America,  they 
are  an  absolute  necessity  in  Japan.  It  is  dangerous 
to  leave  Christian  boys  and  girls  under  the  irreligious 
and  often  immoral  influences  of  public  institutions. 
As  "an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure," 
it  is  supremely  important  to  keep  Christian  Japanese 
youth  under  positive  Christian  instruction  and  in- 
fluences during  their  impressible  period.  And  it  is 
also  necessary  to  train  up  a  strong  body  of  Christian 


1  It  is  no  small  matter  for  encouragement  to  Christian  workers 
in  Japan  that  it  is  now  possible  to  find  among  Japanese  Christians 
three  generations  of  believers ;  so  that  the  words  of  Paul  in  2  Tim- 
othy i.  5  may  be  applied  here  :  "  Having  been  reminded  of  the  un- 
feigned faith  tliat  is  in  thee ;  which  dwelt  first  in  thy  grandmother 
Lois  and  thy  mother  Eunice."  The  future  of  Christianity  in  Japan 
is  insured  when  it  begins  to  be  inherited. 


GOSPEL  SHIP  "FUKUIN   MARU,"  AND  Y.M.C.A.  SUMMER   SCHOOL, 
DOSHISHA,  KYOTO 


JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM  269 

pastors  and  laymen,  who  shall  be  the  leaders  in  the 
self-supporting  Japanese  church  that  is  the  goal  of 
all  missionary  effort.  Therefore  the  work  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Japan  includes  a  system  of  education,  with 
kindergartens  and  elementary  schools,  academies  and 
colleges,  universities  and  theological  seminaries,  and 
with  a  strong  emphasis  on  the  education  and  train- 
ing of  the  girls  and  women. ^ 

But  Christianity  in  Japan  is  also  philanthropic,  as 
it  should  be,  and  therein  exposes  clearly  what  Bud- 
dhism left  undone.  The  latter  was,  as  has  already 
been  said,  proportionately  "kind  to  the  brute  and 
cruel  to  man  " ;  for  it  allowed  humanity  to  suffer 
while  it  regarded  animals  as  "sacred."  Christianity, 
however,  has  not  only  its  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  but  also  its  "  Homes,"  asylums, 
hospitals,  refuges,  —  for  the  poor,  the  neglected,  the 
widow,  the  fatherless,  the  sick,  the  insane,  the  out- 
cast, the  Magdalene,  and  the  worst  criminal.  All 
such  institutions  it  is  carrying  on  in  Japan;  and 
most  of  them  never  existed  there  until  Christians 
introduced  them  or  Christian  teaching  inspired  them. 
This  may  be  predicated  even  of  the  Red  Cross  So- 
ciety; for  although  the  branch  in  Japan  was  first 
organized  as  an  independent  association,  yet  the  very- 
fact  that  the  need  of  such  a  society  was  felt  was  due 
largely  to  Christian  influence.  Revenge  and  "no 
quarter "  were  the  doctrines  of  Old  Japan ;  but 
New  Japan,   aroused  by  the  example  of   Christian 

1  See  "An  American  Missionary  in  Japan,"  pp.  269-262. 


270   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

nations,  and  inspired  by  the  teachings  of  the  Bible, 
now  heartily  supports  the  Red  Cross  Society,  a  Chris- 
tian institution  with  a  distinctively  Christian  banner. 

When  the  forces  that  have  made  for  true  civiliza- 
tion and  for  righteousness  are  figured  out,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  has  been  a  very  important  factor.  In 
Japan,  as  elsewhere,  that  work  is  unusually  success- 
ful in  gaining  sympathy  and  forming  a  common  plat- 
form on  which  all  Christians  may  unite  in  valuable 
work.  It  has  there  both  city  and  student  associa- 
tions, of  which  the  latter  are  more  numerous  and 
powerful,  but  the  former  are  increasing  in  number 
and  injfluence.  The  work  there  is  varied,  as  in 
other  lands,  and  is  constantly  broadening  out.  The 
visits  of  Mr.  John  R.  Mott  have  been  peculiarly  ben- 
eficial to  the  student  class.  In  two  special  phases  the 
work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  in 
Japan  has  been  most  helpful,  —  in  the  establishment 
of  Christian  boarding-houses  for  young  men  in  pub- 
lic schools,  and  in  securing  for  public  high  schools 
and  colleges  Christian  young  men  from  America  as 
teachers  of  English.  And  it  is  a  matter  of  great  re- 
joicing to  all  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  girls  in 
the  public  schools,  and  shops  and  factories,  ^  of  the 
large  cities  of  Japan  that  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  work  Ins  been  started. 

The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  and 

1  There  are  said  to  be  17,630  women  employed  in  the  factories 
and  worksliops  of  Tokyo  alone. 


JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM  271 

other  Christian  temperance  organizations  are  fight- 
ing the  same  battles  in  Japan  as  in  America.  The 
old  religions  never  made  any  attempt  to  check  the 
tobacco,  liquor,  and  social  evils ;  they  seemed  to  as- 
sume such  to  be  inevitable.  Even  now  the  leadership 
in  these  social  and  moral  reforms  is  almost  solely  in 
the  hands  of  Christians.  By  their  untiring  efforts 
the  public  sentiment  against  these  evils  is  rapidly 
growing,  and  various  organizations,  by  public  meet- 
ings and  pages  of  literature,  are  trying  to  lift  the 
people  out  of  these  "habits."  A  bill  prohibiting  the 
sale  of  tobacco  to  minors  was  made  a  law  by  the  Diet, 
and  one  prohibiting  the  sale  of  liquor  to  minors  is 
being  pushed.  By  the  indefatigable  labors  of  a 
Methodist  missionary,  the  Women's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union,  and  the  Salvation  Army,  some  14,000 
girls  have  been  enabled  to  free  themselves  from  their 
slavery  in  the  brothels ;  some  of .  these  wicked  resorts 
had  to  close  up ;  and  public  sentiment  was  so  vehe- 
mently aroused  against  this  evil  that  the  number  of 
visitors  to  houses  of  ill-fame  considerably  decreased. 
And  it  is  Christian  teaching  that  has  disestablished 
concubinage  and  is  constantly  working  to  purify  the 
family  life  of  Japan. 

The  Young  People's  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor, the  Scripture  Union,  and  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  are  other  examples  of  interdenominational 
institutions  which  are  doing  much  to  minimize  sec- 
tarianism and  remind  Japanese  Christians  that,   in 


272   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

spite  of  minor  differences,  they  ought  to  be  and  are 
really  "one." 

Indeed,  the  Japanese  converts  are  naturally  much 
less  sectarian  than  the  missionaries,  and  can  change 
their  denominational  affiliations  without  difficulty. 
The  Japanese  Protestants  are  coming  nearer  and 
nearer  together  by  minimizing  their  differences  and 
emphasizing  their  correspondences.  For  instance, 
the  innate  courtesy  of  Japanese  Baptists  makes 
them  loath  to  insist  on  "  close  communion  " ;  while 
with  the  Presbyterians  and  other  Pedobaptists,  "in- 
fant baptism "  is  unpopular.  The  Methodists,  in 
their  plan  for  a  single  church  of  all  their  branches, 
had  to  choose  an  ambiguous  term  for  the  title,  instead 
of  "Bishop,"  of  their  chief  official.  The  Friends 
cannot  emphasize  their  anti-military  doctrine  among 
a  people  liable  to  conscription;  and  though  High- 
Church  Episcopal  missionaries  may  be  exclusive, 
their  Japanese  believers  enjoy  co-operation  with  other 
Christians.  There  will  eventually  be  developed  a 
"  Japonicized  Christianity." 

Christianity  has  already  made  an  impression  upon 
the  commercial  life  of  New  Japan.  The  tremendous 
development  of  industry,  trade,  and  commerce  has 
required  new  business  standards,  and  especially 
does  it  demand  honesty  and  integrity.  It  is  not 
infrequent,  therefore,  for  companies  and  corpora- 
tions to  seek  out  young  men  trained  in  Christian 
schools,  because  they  are  most  likely  to  be  actuated 
by  high  ideals.     The  Sabbath,  too,  although  Sunday 


JAPANESE  CHRISTENDOM  273 

is  more  a  holiday  than  a  holy  day,  is  also  proving  to 
be  a  boon  in  business  and  labor  circles,  and  is  coming 
gradually  to  be  observed  more  strictly.  Christian 
socialism,  too,  is  not  without  its  influence  in 
Japan. 

There  are  a  few  Japanese  newspapers  which  are 
owned,  managed,  and  edited  by  Christians,  and  are 
working,  in  their  way,  to  uphold  Christian  institu- 
tions. They  are  also  striving  to  introduce  into 
Japanese  journalism  higher  ideals.  There  is  a  still 
larger  number  of  papers,  whose  managers  and  editors, 
though  not  professedly  Christian,  favor  Christianity, 
especially  in  its  social  and  moral  aspects,  and  have, 
for  instance,  given  a  hearty  support  to  the  crusade 
against  the  social  evil.  The  influence  of  Christianity 
may  also  be  seen  in  the  elevation  of  the  tone  of  the 
Japanese  press. 

The  impress  of  Christianity  has  also  been  felt 
even  in  the  political  institutions  of  New  Japan. 
The  principle  of  constitutionalism  found  no  encour- 
agement in  the  philosophy  of  Old  Japan,  but  is  the 
fruit  of  Christian  civilization.  The  doctrine  of  re- 
ligious liberty,  acknowledged  in  the  Constitution,  is 
of  Christian  origin.  The  old  idea  of  impersonality, 
which  recognized  no  value  in  the  individual,  but 
called  him  or  her  a  "  thing, "  could  not  live  long  after 
the  Christian  teachings  of  individual  worth,  rights, 
and  responsibility,  and  personal  salvation  became 
prevalent.  These  points  illustrate  some  indirect, 
but  important,  results  of  Christianity  in  Japan. 

18 


274        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

There  are  also  influential  Christian  men  in  public 
life.  Every  Diet  contains  a  disproportionately  large 
number  of  Christians,  who  may  be  counted  upon  on 
every  occasion  to  stand  up  for  right  principles,  and 
most  of  whom  are  very  influential.  The  late  Speaker 
Kataoka  and  Messrs.  Ebara,  Shimada,  and  Nemoto 
may  be  named  as  examples  of  Japanese  Christian 
men  in  politics.  In  army  and  navy  circles,  on  the 
bench  and  at  the  bar,  in  business,  and  in  many 
other  high  positions,  Christian  men  are  among  the 
most  prominent,  and  are  found  even  in  "Csesar's 
household." 

Christianity  is  bound  to  become  a  greater  power  in 
Japan,  but  it  will  be  a  Christianity  modified  by  native 
ideas  and  influences.  It  is  the  tendency  of  the  Jap- 
anese less  to  originate  than  to  imitate ;  to  adopt,  but 
also  to  adapt  and  to  simplify.  They  are  not  inclined 
to  metaphysical  and  theological  discussions,  and  they 
care  little  for  Occidental  and  accidental  denomi- 
nations differentiated  by  hair-splitting  distinctions 
embodied  in  verbose  creeds.  They  are,  therefore, 
desirous  of  uniting  Japanese  believers  upon  a  simple 
statement  of  the  fundamental  and  essential  truths  of 
Christianity.  They  need  less  of  dogmas  and  rituals, 
and  more  of  the  spirit  of  Christ  in  their  lives.  The 
people  are  superstitious  and  sensual,  and  need  intel- 
lectual and  moral  training.  Superstition  can  be  dissi- 
pated by  science,  and  sensuality  can  be  conquered 
only  by  spirituality.  The  great  mass  of  the  people 
are  stiU  sunk  in  comparative  ignorance  and  supersti- 


JAPANESE   CHRISTENDOM  275 

tion,  but  are  gradually  being  elevated  by  the  spread 
of  knowledge.  But  the  Japanese  public-school  edu- 
cation is  one-sided  and  imperfect,  without  a  lofty  and 
inspiring  standard  of  morality.  Christian  education 
supplies  all  needs  by  developing  a  well-rounded  and 
balanced  intellect,  and  furnishing  the  highest  and 
purest  ideals  of  life.  Theology  is  not  wanted  or 
needed  in  Japan  so  much  as  a  practical  and  spirit- 
ual Christianity. 

The  condition  of  Christianity  in  Japan  at  the 
present  time  is  quite  like  that  of  Christianity  in 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  days  of  Constantine,  who, 
himself  a  nominal  Christian,  "  established  "  Christian- 
ity as  the  official  faith  of  his  empire.  And  yet,  as 
Uhlhorn  says,^  "the  ancient  religion  was  still  deeply 
rooted  in  the  manners  and  customs,  in  the  domestic 
and  the  public  life."  And  this  situation  Uhlhorn 
represents  by  the  following  illustration:  — 

"  In  this  new  city  on  the  Bosphorus,  Constantine  set 
up  a  colossal  statue  of  himself.  It  was  an  ancient  statue 
of  Apollo.  Its  head  was  struck  off  and  a  head  of  Con- 
stantine was  substituted.  Also,  inside  the  statue  was 
placed  a  piece  of  what  was  supposed  to  be  the  holy  cross. 
This  is  a  kind  of  mirror  of  the  age.  A  heathen  body 
with  a  Christian  head  and  Christian  life  at  the  heart." 

This  is  a  fair  illustration  of  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  Japan  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century. 
There  is  a  heathen  body,  for  the  great  mass  of  the 
Japanese  (many  millions)  still  cling  to  the  old  faiths. 

^  "  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism.'* 


276   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

But  there  is  a  Christian  head,  because  the  leaders  of 
New  Japan  are  favorable  to  Christianity  and  its  in- 
stitutions, and  are  reconstructing  the  nation  largely 
on  Christian  lines  and  with  Christian  ideals.  And 
there  is  Christian  life  at  the  heart,  for  it  is  that  life, 
as  shown  in  the  preceding  pages,  which  is  inspiring 
Japan  with  new  ideas  and  ideals.  And  when  we 
take  into  consideration  how  much  Christianity  has 
done  for  Japan  in  less  than  fifty  years,  we  feel  quite 
warranted  in  prophesying  that  within  this  twentieth 
century  Japan  will  become  practically  a  Christian 
nation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Those  specially  interested  should  not  fail  to  consult  "The 
Gist  of  Japan"  (Peery);  "  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan"  (Clem- 
ent); "Japan  and  its  Regeneration"  (Gary);  *'Dux  Christus:  An 
Outline  Study  of  Japan";  "The  Religions  of  Japan,"  "  Verbeck 
of  Japan,"  and  "A  Maker  of  the  New  Orient"  (all  by  Griffis); 
and  "Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom"  (De  Forest).  The 
"Proceedings"  of  the  Osaka  and  the  Tokyo  Missionary  Con- 
ferences, and  Ritter's  "  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  Japan  " 
are  very  valuable.  "From  Far  Formosa"  (Mackay)  tells  of 
wonderful  pioneer  work  there.  For  current  news,  the  "Japan 
Evangelist,"  a  monthly  magazine  published  by  the  Methodist 
Publishing  House,  Tokyo,  is  the  best. 

The  pamphlet  entitled  "The  Christian  Movement  [in  its  Re- 
lation to  the  New  Life]  in  Japan,"  issued  annually  by  the  Stand- 
ing Committee  of  Cooperating  Christian  Missions,  is  most 
instructive. 

On  early  Cathplicism,  the  "History  of  Japan,"  by  Murdoch 
and  Yamagata,  is  invaluable. 

The  authoritative  work  is  Cary's  "  History  of  Christianity  in 
Japan"  (2  vols.). 


CHAPTER  XX 
TWENTIETH   CENTURY   JAPAN 

Outline  of  Topics:  Japan  in  1801  and  1901;  eras;  Emperor 
and  Court;  Shogun.  —  Sealed  and  wide-open  Japan.  —  Travel  and 
barriers.  —  Social  changes.  —  Samurai.  —  Ideals  of  1801  and  1901. 

—  Costume.  —  Architecture.  —  Diet.  —  Education.  —  Newspapers. 

—  Manufactures.  —  Status  of  woman.  —  Christianity.  —  Permanent 
transformations.  —  Prophecy. 

IN  order  to  understand  as  clearly  as  possible  the 
progress  made  by  New  Japan  during  the  past 
fifty  years,  it  will  be  profitable  to  institute  some 
comparisons  between  conditions  then  and  now.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  the  greater  part  of  this  wonderful 
advancement  was  achieved  during  the  last  third  of 
the  nineteenth  century ;  but  it  suits  our  purpose  better 
to  compare  1801  and  1901,  the  first  years  of  the  two 
centuries.  Thus  can  we  appreciate  fully  with  how 
much  difference  in  conditions  and  prospects  Japan 
has  entered  upon  the  twentieth  century  than  she  en- 
tered upon  the  nineteenth,  century. 

By  the  Japanese  calendar,  the  year  1801  was  the 
first  of  the  Kyowa  Era,  a  short  and  uneventful  period ; 
but  the  year  1901  was  the  thirty-fourth  of  the  Meiji 
Era,  or  Period  of  Enlightened  Rule,  —  a  most  ap- 
propriate name  for  the  first  era  of  the  New  Empire. 


278   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  Emperor  in  1801  had  been  known  before  his 
ascension  of  the  throne  as  Prince  Kanin  Kanehito 
(from  whom  the  present  Prince  Kanin  has  descended) ; 
but  he  is  now  known  by  his  posthumous  title  of 
Kokaku.  He  is  said  to  have  been  "  a  sovereign  of 
great  sagacity";  but  he  was,  as  we  know,  only  a 
nominal  ruler,  like  the  faineant  kings  of  France, 
while  the  actual  authority  was  held,  and  the  real 
power  was  exercised,  by  a  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  a 
Shogun  of  the  Tokugawa  family.  The  Emperor  was 
"  powerless  and  lived  in  splendid  poverty." 

The  Imperial  Court  was  organized  in  Kyoto  "  with 
all  pomp  and  circumstance ;  it  had  its  Ministers, 
Vice-Ministers,  and  subordinate  officials;  it  had  its 
five  principal,  as  well  as  more  than  a  hundred  ordi- 
nary. Court  nobles ;  but  the  sovereign's  actual  power 
did  not  extend  beyond  the  direction  of  matters  re- 
lating to  rank  and  etiquette,  the  classification  of 
shrine -keepers,  priests  and  priestesses,  and  profes- 
sionals of  various  kinds,  —  in  a  word,  actual  functions 
of  no  material  importance  whatever."  In  an  absolute 
empire  Kokaku  was  Emperor  in  name  and  fame  only. 

"  He  was  practically  confined  in  sacred  seclusion  ; 
his  person  must  neither  touch  the  earth  nor  be  polluted 
by  contact  with  common  mortals.  The  most  scrupu- 
lous care  was  exercised  about  his  dress,  food,  even 
the  very  dishes  themselves ;  he  was,  to  the  common 
people,  a  real  invisible  deity.  It  is  reported  that  the 
Emperors  of  the  olden  days  must  sit  motionless  upon 
the  throne  for  a  certain  number  of  hours  each  day,  in 


TWEITTIETH  CENTURY  JAPAN  279 

order  that  the  empire  might  have  peace.  Their  per- 
sons were  sacred,  so  that  nobody  was  permitted  to  lay- 
hands  thereon ;  therefore  their  hair  and  nails  might 
have  grown  to  an  unseemly  length,  had  they  not  been 
clandestinely  trimmed  during  sleeping  hours.  The 
dishes  from  which  they  had  partaken  of  food  were 
forthwith  dashed  in  pieces,  in  order  that  nobody  else 
might  ever  use  them.  And  the  very  rice  that  they 
ate  was  picked  over  kernel  by  kernel,  in  order  that  no 
broken  or  imperfect  grain  might  find  lodgment  in  the 
Imperial  stomach."  It  is  also  said  that  no  one  was 
allowed  to  speak  the  name  of  the  Emperor  or  to 
write  in  full  the  characters  of  his  name ;  in  the  latter 
case,  for  clearness,  at  least  one  stroke  must  be 
omitted  from  each  character. 

But  the  late  Emperor,  whose  name  was  Mutsuhito, 
was  an  entirely  different  personage.  He  did  not  live 
in  seclusion,  but  frequently  showed  himself  in  public 
to  his  subjects,  who  could  look  upon  his  face  with- 
out fear  of  being  smitten  with  death.  He  was,  none 
the  less,  revered  and  loved  by  all  the  people,  and  was 
the  real  ruler  of  the  land.  He  had,  however,  volun- 
tarily surrendered  to  the  people  some  of  his  preroga- 
tives, so  that  the  Japanese  to-day  enjoy  constitutional 
government,  parliamentary  and  representative  in- 
stitutions, and  local  self-government.  And  in  1901  the 
Empire,  instead  of  being  divided  up,  as  in  1801,  into 
about  300  feudal  fiefs,  in  each  of  which  a  Daimyo  was 
more  or  less  a  law  unto  himself,  is  divided  into 
about  50  Prefectures,  Imperial   Cities   and   Territo- 


280    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

lies,  in  each  of  which  the  people  have  more  or  less  a 
voice  in  the  administration. 

The  Empress  Dowager,  too,  although  brought  up 
and  educated  in  the  old-fashioned  way,  had  yet 
adopted  modern  ideas  with  great  ease.  She  did  not 
have  shaven  eyebrows  and  blackened  teeth,  like  her 
predecessor  of  1801.  She  often  appears  in  public, 
and  continues  a  generous  patron  of  female  education, 
the  Red  Cross  Society,  and  artistic  and  philanthropic 
enterprises. 

The  Shogun  of  1801  was  lyenari,  who  exercised 
that  authority  for  about  half  a  century.  He  lived  in 
glory  and  splendor  in  Yedo  (now  Tokyo)  with  his 
vassals  around  him.  Theoretically  he  was  only 
Generalissimo  under  the  Emperor,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  policy,  kept  up  the  practice  of  occasional  visits  to 
Kyoto,  where  he  humbled  himself  before  his  nominal 
superior;  but,  as  the  highest  administrative  officer, 
he  was  ruler  in  act  and  fact.  Very  appropriately 
has  he  been  called  "  the  Emperor's  vassal  jailer." 
During  his  Shogunate  "  the  military  class  remained 
perfectly  tranquil,  and  the  feudal  system  attained 
its  highest  stage  of  efficiency." 

In  1901  there  was  no  Shogun  ;  the  last  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  dynasty  abdicated  in  1867,  and  has  spent  most 
of  his  life  since  then  in  retirement  in  Mito  and 
Shizuoka.  He  is  now  living  quietly  in  Tokyo,  with- 
out much  regard,  apparently,  to  the  new-fangled  ways 
of  these  times,  except  that  he  is  reported  to  ride  a 
bicycle  1 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  JAPAN  281 

In  1801  Japan  was  still  a  sealed  country,  but  not 
hermetically,  because  there  was  one  chink  at  Nagasaki, 
where  occasional  intercourse  was  allowed  with  the 
Chinese  and  the  Dutch.  Not  only  were  foreigners 
forbidden  to  enter,  but  natives  were  also  forbidden  to 
leave,  this  "holy  land."  Already,  however,  efforts 
were  being  made  spasmodically  to  break  down  the 
policy  of  seclusion,  with  its  two  phases  of  exclusion 
and  inclusion. 

In  1901,  however,  thousands  of  foreigners  of  many 
nationalities  travelled  and  resided  in  Japan ;  and  thou- 
sands of  Japanese  were  travelling  and  residing  in  many 
parts  of  the  globe.  Foreign  vessels,  flying  many  dif- 
ferent flags,  freely  entered  the  harbors  of  Japan ;  and 
Japanese  ships  conducted  freight  and  passenger  ser- 
vices to  Asia,  Australasia,  America,  and  Europe. 
The  figures  of  the  small  amount  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  Nagasaki  in  1801  are  not  at  hand ;  but  the 
exports  and  imports  of  Japan  for  1901  amounted  re- 
spectively to  252,349,543  yen  and  255,816,645  yen, 

A  Japanese  of  1801  would  have  travelled,  if  he 
were  one  of  the  common  people,  by  foot,  and,  if  he 
were  of  sufficient  rank  or  wealth,  by  norimono,  or 
hago^  or  on  horseback.  The  Japanese  of  1901  might 
continue  to  travel  by  foot,  and,  in  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, might  still  use  the  kago  ;  but  they  might  also 
travel  by  jinrikisha^  horse-car,  stage,  steam-car,  steam- 
boat, horse  and  carriage,  electric  car,  and  bicycle. 
The  letter  of  1801  was  despatched  by  courier  or  re- 
lays of  couriers;   that  of  1901  by  mail,  and  com- 


282   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

munication  by  telegraph  and  telephone  was  becoming 
more  and  more  common.  There  were  over  3,600 
miles  of  railway,  9,500  miles  of  telegraph,  and,  in 
Tokyo  alone,  over  6,000  telephones.  An  electric  rail- 
way was  actually  disturbing  and  desecrating  the  hal- 
lowed precincts  of  Kyoto,  once  sacred  to  the  Emperor. 
And  even  His  Majesty's  Palace  in  Tokyo  had  been 
put  into  telephonic  and  telegraphic  communication 
with  the  rest  of  the  city  and  even  of  the  world. 

Nor  was  travel  throughout  the  empire  itself  free  and 
unimpeded  to  all  in  1801.  The  country  was  split  up 
into  feudal  fiefs,  of  which  each  lord  was  intensely 
jealous  of  other  lords  and  had  to  act  on  the  defensive. 
Every  traveller  was  under  considerable  surveillance, 
and  had  to  be  able  to  give  a  strict  account  of  himself; 
and  many  "  barriers  "  were  erected  where  travellers 
were  challenged  by  guards.  The  large  places  where 
the  lords  lived  were  walled  towns,  entered  b}'^  gates 
carefully  guarded  by  sentinels.  In  Kyoto  and  Yedo 
the  palaces  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Shogun  were 
protected  by  moats  and  gateway.  But  in  1901  those 
historic  castles  and  gateways  had  mostly  crumbled 
into  ruins  or  been  destroyed  in  war,  or  demolished 
by  the  hands  of  coolies  working  under  the  direction 
of  the  Board  of  Public  Works  or  the  Bureau  of  Street 
Improvements. 

We  cannot  refrain  from  referring  more  particularly 
to  the  great  change  that  has  been  effected  in  the 
whole  constitution  of  Japanese  society.  In  1801, 
below  the  Court  nobles  and  the  feudal  lords,  there 


FOUR  gates:  palace,  TOKYO;  PALACE,  KYOTO; 
SAKURADA,  TOKYO  ;  NIJO  CASTLE,  KYOTO 


c     <     f,-    t 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  JAPAN  283 

weie  four  classes  of  society,  —  the  knight,  the  farmer, 
the  mechanic,  and  the  merchant,  besides  the  outcasts. 
In  1901,  below  the  nobility,  there  were  only  two 
classes,  —  the  gentry  and  the  common  people ;  and 
the  distinction  between  these  two  is  one  of  name 
only.  In  official  records  and  on  certain  occasions 
the  registration  of  the  nominal  rank  is  necessary; 
but  in  actual  life  few  questions  are  asked  about  a 
man's  standing,  and  merit  finds  its  reward. 

In  1801  the  samurai  (knight)  was  the  beau  ideal 
of  the  Japanese.  His  courage  was  unimpeachable; 
he  was  the  model,  not  only  of  a  warrior,  but  also  of 
a  gentleman,  and  before  him  the  common  people 
had  to  bow  their  heads  to  the  ground.  But  now  the 
sword  which  was  his  "  soul "  is  a  curio,  the  bow  and 
arrows  are  also  curiosities,  and  the  panoply  either 
hangs  rusty  in  a  storehouse  or  is  offered  for  sale  by 
a  dealer  in  second-hand  goods.  The  samurai  is  now 
only  an  historical  character;  and  when  feudalism 
was  abolished,  many  an  individual  of  that  class  fell 
into  a  pauper's  grave,  or,  forced  into  unaccustomed 
manual  labor,  learned  the  culinary  art,  and  entered 
service  in  the  despised  foreigner's  kitchen  ! 

Indeed,  although  the  soldier  is  still  highly  honored, 
and  deeds  worthy  of  the  best  of  the  old  samurai  are 
still  performed,^  the  merchant,  formerly  despised  be- 
cause he  bartered  for  profit,  has  risen  in  esteem  and 
become  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  Japanese 
society  and  civilization.     The  age  of  1801  was  feudal 

1  See  "  Heroic  Japan  "  (Eastlake  and  Yamada). 


284   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  aesthetic ;  the  age  of  1901,  democratic  and  com- 
mercial. In  1801,  the  swords ;  in  1901,  the  aoroban 
(abacus) :  in  1801,  the  castle  ;  in  1901,  the  counting- 
house  :  in  1801,  busJd  (knights)  ;  in  1901  budgets. 

In  1801  the  Japanese  wore  nothing  but  their  own 
national  costume,  with  strictly  prescribed  uniforms 
for  every  occasion.  In  hot  weather  a  scarcity  or 
utter  lack  of  clothing  was  the  prevailing  style.  In 
1901  the  latter  style,  though  no  longer  conventional, 
prevailed  under  certain  limitations, — when  and  where 
the  police  were  not  strict  constructionists  of  the  law  ! 
And  in  1901  there  was  a  great  variety  of  styles,  rang- 
ing from  pure  native  to  pure  foreign,  with  all  kinds 
of  fits  and  misfits  and  ludicrous  combinations. 

Japanese  houses  of  1801  and  1901  show  some 
differences.  The  native  style  has  been  more  or  less 
modified  by  foreign  architecture.  Glass,  of  course,  is 
largely  taking  the  place  of  paper  for  doors  and  win- 
dows; carpeted  floors  are  often  preferred  to  matted 
floors ;  stoves,  chairs,  tables,  lamps,  and  bedsteads 
are  coming  more  and  more  into  use ;  and  brick  and 
stone  are  more  largely  employed  in  the  construction 
of  residences,  offices,  and  stores. 

The  diet  of  the  Japanese  has  also  changed  con- 
siderably within  100  years.  Whereas  in  1801  they 
were  practically  vegetarians,  in  1901  they  had  learned 
to  eat  and  drink  anything  and  everything.  Foreign 
cooking  had  become  very  popular  and  also  cheap ;  in 
many  Japanese  families  foreign  food  was  eaten  at 
least  once  a  day. 


TWEISTTIETH  CEISTTIIRY  JAPAN  285 

A  Japanese  student  of  1801  was  compelled  to  study 
at  night  by  the  dull  light  of  a  pith  wick  floating  in 
vegetable  oil,  or  by  the  fitful  flame  of  fifty  fireflies 
imprisoned  in  a  small  bamboo  cage.  The  student  of 
1901  burned  midnight  oil  from  Russia  or  America, 
or  studied  by  the  aid  of  gas  or  electric  light.  The 
studies  in  1801  were  confined  to  Japanese  and  Chinese 
classics.  It  was  considered  practically  a  crime  to  seek 
learning  outside  of  Japan  and  China,  but  in  1901  the 
studies  included  the  whole  range  of  Oriental  and  Oc- 
cidental learning ;  and  one  school  in  Tokyo  tried  to 
attract  students  by  assuming  the  name  "  School  of 
One  Hundred  Branches."  And  while  in  1801  Dutch 
books  were  read  only  by  a  very  select  few,  and  mostly 
in  secret  at  the  risk  of  one's  life,  in  1901  it  was  pos- 
sible to  find  readers  of  Dutch,  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Russian,  Italian,  Spanish,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Sanskrit,  and  other  books.  In  1801  education  was 
practically  confined  to  the  priestly  and  military 
classes,  but  in  1901  there  were  no  such  limitations, 
and  elementary  education  was  made  free. 

In  1801  there  were  no  newspapers  in  Japan;  in 
1901  papers  and  magazines  galore,  printed  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  empire.  Indeed,  in  1801,  books 
were  either  copied  laboriously  by  hand  or  printed 
from  wood-cuts ;  but  in  1901  all  the  modern  improve- 
ments in  printing  were  utilized.  Moreover,  fonts  of 
type  of  many  languages  might  be  found ;  and  in  fact, 
anything  needed  in  the  printing  line  could  be  manu- 
factured at  the  Tsukiji  Type  Foundry,  Tokyo. 


286   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  mention  of  this  foundry  suggests  also  the 
immense  number  of  manufacturing  plants  that  were 
to  be  found  in  Japan  in  1901  against  none  in  1801. 
Cotton,  woollen,  and  paper  mills,  iron  foundries, 
electrical  apparatus  manufactories,  engine  works, 
steamships,  docks  are  only  a  few  examples  of  the 
development  along  this  line.  And  in  Tokyo  the 
grounds  which  in  1801  were  entirely  devoted  to 
the  aesthetic  gardens  of  the  Prince  of  Mito  are  now 
partially  given  over  to  the  practical  but  sooty  pur- 
poses of  an  arsenal. 

There  is  a  great  diffierence  also  between  the  Jap- 
anese woman  of  1801  and  her  descendant  of  1901. 
The  former  had  practically  no  rights  that  her  hus- 
band was  bound  to  respect ;  she  must  be  respectfully 
obedient  to  her  husband  and  his  parents,  and  she 
could  be  divorced  at  will.  But,  according  to  the  new 
codes  which  went  into  effect  in  1899,  "a  woman 
can  now  become  the  head  of  a  family  and  exercise 
authority  as  such ;  she  can  inherit  and  own  property 
and  manage  it  herself;  she  can  exercise  parental 
authority;  she  can  act  as  guardian  or  executor  and 
has  a  voice  in  family  councils."  Thus  her  legal  and 
social  status  has  greatly  improved. 

In  1801  Christianity  was  under  the  ban  of  a  strict 
prohibition,  publicly  advertised  on  the  official  bulletin- 
boards  ;  and  although  believers  in  secret  were  trans- 
mitting the  faith  which  had  been  secretly  handed 
down  to  them,  it  was  supposed  that  "the  corrupt 
sect "  had  been  wiped  out.     But  in  1901  there  were 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  JAPAN  287 

more  than  120,000  enrolled  believers,  who  represented 
a  Christian  community  of  about  twice  that  num- 
ber. Christian  preachers  and  churches  were  all  over 
the  empire,  and  a  Gospel  ship  was  cruising  about 
in  the  Inland  Sea.  According  to  the  Constitution, 
religious  belief  is  free ;  so  that  Christianity  was  be- 
coming more  and  more  a  power  in  the  land  and  wield- 
ing in  society  an  influence  that  cannot  be  measured. 
And  in  1901  Japanese  troops,  in  alliance  with  those 
of  nations  of  Christendom,  had  rescued  Christian 
missionaries  and  Chinese  converts  from  the  fury  of 
mobs  and  soldiery,  and  Christian  missionaries,  driven 
out  of  China,  had  found  safe  and  comfortable  places 
of  refuge  in  Japan. 

Such  comparisons  might  be  carried  out  with  regard 
to  many  other  items  and  in  greater  detail ;  but  these 
will,  perhaps,  suffice  as  illustrations  of  the  extent  to 
which  Japan  was  transformed  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  some  points,  of  course,  especially  in 
modern  inventions,  there  has  been  no  greater  change 
than  in  Occidental  nations  during  the  same  period. 
But  it  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  that  these 
transformations,  in  geographical,  agricultural,  mineral, 
industrial,  commercial,  manufacturing,  social,  eco- 
nomic, political,  legal,  educational,  moral,  and  religious 
affairs,  so  far  as  they  have  gone,  are  not  temporary 
or  superficial,  but  permanent  and  thorough ;  there  is 
to  be  no  retrogression.  Japan  has  deliberately  and 
firmly  started  out,  not  only  to  march  along  with  the 
other  so-called  civilized  nations,  but  also  to  contribute 


288   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODEEN  JAPAN 

toward  further  progress  in  civilization.  The  only 
question  is,  What  will  be  the  record  of  Twentieth 
Century  Japan? 

The  full  answer  to  this  question  we  must  pass 
on  to  the  man  who  one  hundred  years  hence  may 
write  on  "Japan  in  1901  and  2001."  But  though 
we  do  not  lay  claim  to  any  special  gift  of  prophecy, 
we  venture  to  indulge  in  some  general  predictions 
which  no  one,  to-day  at  least,  can  challenge.  We 
feel  sure,  for  instance,  that  Twentieth  Century  Japan 
will  keep  apace  with  the  progress  of  the  world  in 
material  civilization.  We  doubt  not  that  during  this 
century  the  Japanese  people,  becoming  better  fitted, 
will  gradually  be  admitted  to  a  greater  share  in  the 
administration  of  the  government,  local  and  national. 
We  feel  quite  certain  that  the  social  conditions  of 
Japan  will  be  greatly  ameliorated,  and  education  be- 
come very  widely  diffused,  so  that  an  immense 
intellectual  improvement  will  be  attained  during  the 
next  hundred  years.  We  also  dare  to  predict  that 
by  2001  Shinto  will  have  entirely  disappeared  as  a 
religion,  Buddhism  will  have  lost  its  hold  upon  the 
people,  and  Japan  will  have  become  practically  a 
Christian  nation. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN 

Outline  of  Topics  :  Aims  and  ambitions  of  Japan.  —  Grand 
park.  —  Commercial  centre.  —  Advantageous  position.  —  Leader  in 
civilization.  —  Example  of  civilized  nation.  —  Transmitter  of  West- 
ern civilization.  —  Japan  and  Korea.  —  Japan  and  China.  —  Fuchow, 
Yangtse  Valley,  and  Manchuria.  —  Japanese  leaders  of  Chinese. — 
Dr.  Hirth  on  China  and  Japan.  —  Japanese  invasion  of  China. — 
Siam  and  Japan.  —  The  United  States  a  Pacific  Power.  —  A  com- 
plete Anglo-Japanese  Alliance.  —  Russia  and  Japan.  —  Two  streams 
of  civilization.  —  New  Japan  egotistic.  —  Prospects  of  Japan.  — 
Confidence  in  Japan.  —  Bibliography. 

IT  is  now  appropriate  to  inquire  what  is  appar- 
ently the  mission  of  Japan  in  the  world.  Since 
even  much  less  powerful  nations  have  played 
most  important  parts  on  the  stage  of  the  world's 
history,  it  is  simply  inconceivable  that  Japan  should 
have  attained  in  so  brief  a  period  such  an  eminent 
position  as  a  world-power  without  having  some  special 
mission  to  perform  and  some  contribution  to  make  to 
the  sum  total  of  what  is  called  civilization.  And  in 
considering  this  topic  of  the  mission  of  Japan,  it  may 
be  well  to  ascertain  what  are  the  aims  and  aspirations 
of  the  Japanese,  because  it  is  usually  along  these  lines 
that  a  nation,  as  well  as  an  individual,  achieves  suc- 
cess. Let  us  then  permit  Japanese  themselves  to 
answer  largely  our  queries  concerning  the  role  which 

19 


290   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

is  to  be  theirs  "in  the  great  world-drama  that  con- 
tinues unendingly,  like  a  Chinese  play,  in  the  Far 
East."  And  the  opinions  which  are  now  to  be  pre- 
sented, even  though  the  individuals  themselves  are 
not,  in  every  case,  the  most  prominent  personages 
that  might  have  been  selected,  nevertheless  fairly 
represent  Japanese  public  opinion. 

One  ^  says :  "  Japan  is  especially  favored  by  nature 
with  beauty  and  picturesqueness  of  scenery  and  a 
healthful  climate,  and  has  been  appropriately  called 
the  '  Paradise  of  the  East. '  We  shall  turn  this 
country  into  a  grand  park  of  the  nations,  and  draw 
pleasure-seekers  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  We 
shall  build  magnificent  hotels  and  establish  excel- 
lent clubs,  in  most  splendid  style,  to  receive  the 
royal  visitors  of  Europe  and  the  millionaires  of 
America."  And  while  the  objection  has  been  raised 
that  this  is  not  "a  very  lofty  rSle  for  Japan,"  it  is 
claimed  that  "it  is  seen  to  be  about  the  role  that 
France,  the  great  nation  of  artists,  is  content  to  play 
in  Europe  —  making  herself  infinitely  beautiful  and 
infinitely  charming."  And  certainly  to  minister  ar- 
tistically to  the  enjoyment  of  residents  and  visitors 
by  making  the  country  as  pleasant  and  delightful 
as  possible  is  an  aim  that  accords  well  with  the 
naturally  aesthetic  tastes  of  the  Japanese  people. 
Therefore,  concerning  success  in  this  endeavor  there 
cannot  be  the  slightest  doubt. 

That  rSle  is  not,  however,   purely  aesthetic,  be- 

1  Mr.  E.  Takahashi,  President  of  the  Bank  of  Japan. 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  291 

cause  it  contemplates  the  mercenary  advantages  to 
be  reaped  from  the  expected  throngs  of  pleasure - 
seekers,  and  is,  therefore,  also  practical.  And  the 
same  person  makes  another  suggestion,  wholly  prac- 
tical and  pecuniary,  as  follows :  — 

"Japan  is  geographically  situated  in  an  advantageous 
position,  as  at  the  centre  of  the  world's  commercial 
routes.  China  will  be  the  future  market  of  the  world, 
and  Japan  will  receive  the  mercantile  vessels  fitted  to 
be  despatched  to  all  parts  of  the  earth.  Japau  should 
provide  herself  with  extensive  docks  at  the  various 
ports  of  the  island  on  the  route  of  the  mercantile 
vessels,  to  give  them  shelter  and,  if  needed,  necessary 
repairs  and  cleaning,  and  eventually  supply  fuel  and 
water/' 

We  have  already  referred,  in  the  closing  para- 
graphs of  the  first  chapter,  to  the  physiographical 
advantages  of  Japan,  but  we  are  impelled  to  dwell 
more  at  length  on  the  subject.  A  noted  Japanese^ 
has  emphasized  the  point  with  the  following  sug- 
gestions: 

"  To  all  appearances,  the  seas  about  Japan  and  China 
will  be  the  future  theatre  of  the  Far  East.  The  Phil- 
ippines have  been  reduced  to  a  province  of  the  United 
States.  China,  separated  from  us  only  by  a  very  narrow 
strip  of  water,  is  offering  every  promise  of  becoming 
a  great  resource  open  to  the  world  of  the  twentieth 
century.  The  Siberia  railway  has  been  opened  to  traffic ; 
and  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  Central  America 

»  Rear-Admiral  Kimotsuki  in  the  "  Taiy5  "  ( Sun) .  See  also  chap, 
xiii.  of  "Japan  in  Transition "  (Ransome). 


292   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

is  expected  to  be  finished  before  long.  ...  As  for 
fuel,  our  supply  of  coal  from  the  mines  of  Hokkaido 
and  KyUshiu  is  so  abundant  that  the  surplus  not  re- 
quired for  our  own  consumption  is  exported  largely 
into  various  parts  of  the  East,  where  no  productive 
coal  mines  have  been  found  except  a  very  few  ones  of 
poor  quality.  .  .  . 

"  Taking  all  these  [things]  into  account,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  the  future  situation  of  Japan  will  be 
that  of  a  central  station  of  various  water  passages, —  a 
situation  most  conducive  to  the  good  of  our  country; 
and  that,  numerous  as  the  attractive  places  of  his- 
torical interest  and  natural  beauty  are,  it  is  chiefly 
from  our  excellently  advantageous  position,  a  connect- 
ing link  common  to  the  three  chains  of  water  passage 
to  and  from  Europe,  America,  and  Asia,  that  we  shall 
be  able  to  obtain  the  largest  share  of  the  riches  of  the 
nations  of  the  world." 

With  reference  to  the  success  of  Japan  in  such  a 
purpose  as  this,  there  can  be  very  little  doubt;  for 
the  natural  advantages  are  so  great  that  they  require 
comparatively  little  improvement. 

But,  besides  this  aim  of  commercial  prosperity, 
there  is  a  higher  ambition.     One  writer^  says:  — 

"Japan's  mission  at  this  juncture  would  be  to  act 
as  the  leader  to  the  Asiatic  countries  in  introducing 
modern  civilization :  China  and  Korea,  for  instance, 
can  learn  about  civilization  much  faster  and  easier 
than  from  the  countries  in  Europe  and  America,  for 
they  have  common  systems  of  letters  and  to  a  certain 
extent  of  ideas." 

1  Editorial  in  the  "  Taiyo  "  (Sun). 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  293 

Prof.  K.  Ukita^  makes  the  following  suggestion: 

"  It  is  the  mission  of  Japan  to  set  up  an  example  of 
a  civilized  and  independent  national  state  for  her  Asiatic 
neighbors,  and  then  to  make  a  confederation  of  all  the 
Asiatic  nations  on  the  basis  of  international  law;  just 
as  it  is  the  mission  of  the  United  States  of  America 
to  form  one  vast  pan-American  Union  of  all  the  re- 
publics of  the  new  hemisphere,  and  thus  to  hasten  on 
the  progress  toward  the  organization  of  the  whole 
world." 

Again  we  quote  from  the  editor  of  the  "  Taiyo  " 
(Sun),  as  follows:  — 

"  It  is  our  duty  to  transmit  the  essence  of  Occidental 
civilization  to  our  neighbors,  as  better  success  may 
be  realized  by  so  doing  than  by  introducing  there  the 
new  institutions  directly  from  the  West.  The  present 
state  of  things  in  China  does  not  allow  her  to  appreciate 
fully  the  ideas  of  Westerners,  more  so  because  their 
fundamental  conception  of  morals  is  at  variance  with 
that  of  Occidentals.  But  Japan  has  every  facility  to 
win  the  confidence  of  China,  ia  consideration  of  its 
geographical  situation  and  of  its  literary  affinity.  The 
valor,  discipline,  and  order  of  our  army  have  already 
gained  the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  Chinese,  and 
it  now  remains  for  us  to  guide  them  to  higher  pos- 
sibilities with  enlightened  thoughts  and  ideas.  Such 
a  work  cannot  be  accomplished  in  a  day ;  it  will  require 
years  of  perseverance  and  toil." 

Now,  it  may  be  profitable  to  ascertain  to  what  ex- 
tent Japan  is  fulfilling  her  self-appointed  but  natural 

1  Formerly  of  the  Doshislia.    From  the  "  Taiyo." 


294    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mission  to  uplift  her  neighbors  and  kindred  in  East- 
ern Asia.  In  Korea,  for  instance,  what  is  the  scope 
of  Japanese  influence?  In  that  peninsula  there  are 
thousands  of  Japanese,  by  whom  almost  all  the  im- 
portant enterprises  of  the  country  are  managed.  Of 
the  foreign  trade  of  Korea,  by  far  the  largest  per  cent 
of  both  exports  and  imports  is  in  connection  with 
Japan ;  while  the  trade  of  Russia  with  Korea  is  posi- 
tively insignificant.  The  principal  articles  of  export 
to  Japan  are  agricultural  products,  while  the  imports 
from  Japan  are  chiefly  manufactured  goods.  At  every 
open  port  of  Korea  there  is  a  Japanese  post  and  tele- 
graph office,  through  which  alone  can  communication 
be  had  with  foreign  countries.  As  Korea  is  almost 
wholly  destitute  of  shipping,  her  coasting  trade  is 
chiefly  carried  on  by  Japanese  vessels,  which  also 
furnish  almost  all  the  means  of  trade  and  travel 
abroad.  In  railways,  too,  the  Japanese  have  largest 
control ;  and  their  banks  are  strong  and  prosperous. 
Fisheries  and  mining  likewise  furnish  employment 
for  Japanese,  who  also  carry  on  numerous  miscel- 
laneous business  enterprises. 

When  we  pass  on  to  China,  we  find  most  astonish- 
ing results,  a  full  treatment  of  which  would  require 
a  volume,  so  that  we  must  be  content  with  a  few 
typical  examples.  In  Fuchow,  for  instance,  in  the 
six  years  since  a  Japanese  consul  first  landed  there, 
the  number  of  Japanese  residents  had  increased  from 
8  to  70,  and  the  number  of  Formosan  natives,  now 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  295 

naturalized  Japanese,  who  were  staying  there,  was 
more  than  160.  The  Osaka  Shosen  Kwaisha^  has  a 
branch  office  in  Fuchow;  and  the  Formosan  Bank 
has  sent  there  a  special  commissioner.  In  Amoy  also, 
on  account  of  its  proximity  to  Formosa,  Japanese  in- 
fluence is  growing. 

The  great  increase  of  Japanese  enterprise  on  the 
Yangtse  River  during  recent  years  deserves  a  para- 
graph by  itself.  There  are  several  Japanese  lines  of 
steamers,  besides  special  vessels  for  the  coal  and  iron 
trade.  "  Side  by  side  with  this  development  of  car- 
rying facilities  many  Japanese,  in  the  capacity  of 
merchants.  Government  employes  or  projectors,  may 
be  seen  travelling  in  the  Yangtse  Valley ;  and  further 
the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  translation  of 
Japanese  books  into  Chinese  has  increased  in  an  ex- 
traordinary degree.  .  .  .  Nothing  is  more  remarkable 
than  the  popularity  enjoyed  by  Japanese  things  and 
Japanese  subjects." 

In  view  of  the  complications  with  Russia,  it  is 
well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  Northern  China, 
especially  Manchuria,  is  most  important  to  Japan 
from  the  commercial  point  of  view.  The  trade 
with  Dalny  alone  is  from  30,000,000  to  40,000,000 
yen  per  year,  and  that  with  all  Manchuria  amounts 
to  about  20,000,000  yen  annually.  It  is  perfectly 
natural,  therefore,  that  Japan  should  object  to  con- 
tinued Russian  occupation,  from  which  she  has  al- 
ready suffered  by  direct  and  indirect   interference, 

1  Osaka  Merchant  Steamship  Company. 


296        A  HAKDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

and  that  she  should  demand  a  fair  field  with  "  open 
doors." 

From  such  instances,  of  which  more  might  be 
cited,  it  is  apparent  that  Japan  is  doing  her  duty 
in  the  way  of  helping  China  to  the  benefits  of  ma- 
terial civilization.  But  her  influence  is  being  ex- 
erted for  good  on  higher  planes.  For,  as  the  editor 
of  the  "Japan  Mail"  observes,  "every  Japanese  sub- 
ject employed  in  China  in  whatever  capacity  will  be 
a  centre  for  diffusing  the  light  of  liberalism  " ;  and 
"the  Chinese  are  apparently  to  be  led  along  their 
new  path  by  the  Japanese,"  who  "have  some  degree 
of  distant  kinship  with  the  Chinese." 

The  words  of  Dr.  Hirth  will  add  weight  because 
he  is,  perhaps,  the  most  eminent  Chinese  scholar  in 
the  country  and  holds  the  professorship  of  Chinese  in 
Colunibia  University,  New  York  City.  He  spoke  as 
follows :  ^  — 

"No  capable  observer  of  events  in  China  since  the 
Imperial  Court  returned  to  Peking  can  doubt  that  the 
government  has  decided  to  adopt  the  policy  of  Japan, 
which  is  to  take  the  methods  of  western  civilization 
for  their  models.  In  directing  the  new  movement  in 
China,  Japan  is  taking  the  lead  over  other  foreign 
nations,  and  this,  it  is  asserted,  is  due  to  her  superior 
command  of  the  language. 

"  Moreover,  every  educated  Japanese  is  imbued  with 
the  ideas  prevalent  in  Chinese  literature,  religious  and 
political,  and  hence  he  has  a  different  standing  in  the 

1  "The  Political  and  Commercial  Reasona  for  the  Study  of 
Chinese.'* 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  297 

eyes  of  the  Chinese  from  that  of  Americans  and  Euro- 
peans. China  has  thus  placed  the  work  of  educating 
the  rising  generation  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  as 
being  less  likely  to  destroy  the  old  knowledge  while 
familiarizing  the  students  with  the  advantages  of  the 
new. 

"  A  National  University  has  been  established  by  the 
Emperor  at  Peking,  which  it  is  calculated  will  be  the 
model  for  educational  institutions  all  over  the  country. 
Kecently  a  Japanese  professor  has  been  selected  to  draft 
a  new  code  of  laws  for  the  empire.  The  reason  why  a 
Japanese  was  selected  for  this  work  in  preference  to  an 
equally  learned  German,  American,  or  Englishman,  is 
because  men  who  are  both  willing  and  capable  of  making 
due  allowance  for  traditional  prejudices  will  never  arise 
from  a  country  where  the  study  of  Chinese  institutions  is 
so  much  in  its  infancy  as  with  all  of  us,  except  Japan." 

The  present  peaceable  invasion  of  China  by  Jap- 
anese, "not  this  time  with  guns  for  weapons,  but 
with  ideas  and  educational  influences, "  is  along  these 
seven  lines ;  ^  — 

"  1.  The  Agricultural  College,  established  some  years 
ago  at  Wuchang  by  the  Viceroy  Chang  Chih-tung,  and 
managed  for  some  time  by  an  expert  American,  has  now 
been  given  over  to  Japanese  management. 

"  2.  The  military  school  in  Hangchau  is  taught  wholly 
by  Japanese. 

"3.  A  large  amount  of  translation  work  is  done  by 
the  Japanese. 

"4.  Many  Chinese  students  have  been  sent  by  Chang 
Chih-tung  during  recent  years  to  be  educated  in  Japanese 
schools  for  Chinese  government  service. 

*  "  Chinese  Recorder." 


298   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

"  6.  More  than  one  large  and  influential  Chinese  news- 
paper is  owned  and  edited  by  Japanese,  one  of  which  is 
an  especially  strong  advocate  of  closer  union  between  the 
two  great  nations  of  the  East. 

"6.  Nearly  100  Japanese  students  are  in  attendance 
at  school  in  Shanghai,  studying  Chinese  and  English  with 
a  view  to  positions  of  usefulness  in  China. 

"  7.  A  large  and  increasing  number  of  translation  socie- 
ties are  being  organized  in  Shanghai,  the  principal  object 
of  which  is  to  get  into  circulation  books  on  Western 
learning.  The  significant  fact  is  that  the  large  majority 
of  them  are  translated  from  the  Japanese  rather  than 
European  languages,  because,  as  they  say,  the  Japanese 
have  already  selected  the  best,  and  they  wish  to  profit 
by  their  experience.  Books  on  Political  Economy, 
General  Science,  Agriculture,  Pedagogics,  Ancient  and 
Current  History  are  now  commonly  on  sale  in  Chinese 
bookstores,  most  of  which  are  advertised  as  having  been 
adapted  from  the  Japanese." 

There  is  yet  another  country  which  is  feeling  the 
influence  of  Japan;  and  that  is  Siam.  No  doubt 
much  of  this  increased  interest  in  "  things  Japanese  '* 
may  be  attributed  to  the  recent  visit  of  the  Siamese 
Crown  Prince  to  Japan.  He  is  having  a  Japanese 
building  constructed  for  himself ;  and  the  king  is  to 
have  a  Japanese  garden  and  house  added  to  the 
grounds  of  his  palace.  The  trade  between  Japan  and 
Siam  is  not  yet  very  extensive;^  but  it  is  capable 
of  considerable  expansion.  Siamese  boys  and  girls 
have  begun  to  resort  to  Japan  for  educational  advan- 

^  Japan  exports  chiefly  matches,  lamps,  and  coal,  and  imports 
principally  rice  and  cotton-seed. 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  299 

tages;   so  that,  in  more   senses  than  one,  Japan   is 
coming  to  be  the  teacher  and  leader  of  Siam. 

But  there  is  another  phase  of  the  Far  Eastern 
situation  that  demands  close  attention.  The  United 
States  has  definite  and  direct  interests  of  several 
kinds  in  Japan,  Korea,  China,  and  Siam;  and  she 
must  maintain  these  at  all  hazards.  Through  the 
possession  of  Hawaii,  Guam,  and  particularly  the 
Philippines,  she  has  become  a  Pacific  Power,  more 
than  ever  concerned,  and  directly,  in  Oriental  poli- 
tics. The  advent  of  the  United  States  into  that  field 
was  hailed  with  joy  by  the  Japanese,  who  have  the 
utmost  confidence  in  our  international  policy. 

In  view  of  the  fact,  therefore,  that  the  United 
States,  by  virtue  of  providential  necessity,  must 
be  reckoned  as  a  factor  in  Oriental  politics,  and 
cannot  herself  ignore  such  responsibilities,  there  is 
only  one  course  open,  only  one  policy  to  be  pur- 
sued. It  is  most  clearly  our  duty  as  a  nation  (pas- 
sively, if  possible,  but  actively,  if  necessary)  to 
support  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  in  its  efforts 
in  behalf  of  the  nations  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  union 
of  the  greatest  nations  of  Europe,  America,  and  Asia 
in  a  complete  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  would  make 
a  "  triple  alliance  "  practically  invincible. 

There  are  two  rival  interests  contending  for  mas- 
tery on  the  other  shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  —  Russia 
and  Japan.  Toward  the  former  we  must  feel  grati- 
tude for  her  attitude  toward  us  when  our  Union  was 
in  utmost  peril;  but  that  sentiment  is  overbalanced 


300   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

by  other  considerations.  Toward  the  latter  we  have 
an  imperative  duty,  as  toward  a  protege^  because  it 
was  America  who  started  Japan  on  her  present  career 
and  must  acknowledge  the  responsibility  to  assist  her 
in  every  laudable  purpose.  And  certainly  her  aims 
in  the  Far  East  coincide  with  ours  and  with  the 
dictates  of  civilization.  The  supremacy  of  Japan 
in  Eastern  Asia  means  far  more  for  America  and 
American  institutions  than  does  the  domination  of 
Russia.  Japan  to-day  enjoys  rights  unknown  in 
Russia:  social  freedom,  political  privileges,  repre- 
sentative institutions,  local  self-government,  intel- 
lectual liberty,  freedom  of  assembly  and  of  the 
press,  and  religious  liberty.  Japan  is  already  far 
in  advance  of  Russia  and,  in  many  respects  abreast 
of  Germany,  in  civilization.  And,  as  "Japan  holds 
the  key  of  the  Far  Eastern  position,"  she  is  our 
natural  ally.  Dai  Nippon  banzai  —  "  Long  live  Great 
Japan." 

But  let  us  now  revert  again  to  the  Japanese  writer 
quoted  near  the  close  of  the  first  chapter.  With  a 
reminder  of  the  ever  westward  course  of  empire,  he 
pens  a  paragraph  so  bold  and  suggestive  that  it  is 
worth  transcribing :  1  — 

**  Two  streams  of  civilization  flowed  in  opposite  direc- 
tions when  mankind  descended  from  their  primitive  homes 
on  the  table-land  of  Iran  or  America.  That  towards  the 
west  passed  through  Babylon,  Phoenicia,  Greece,  Rome, 
Germany,  England,  and   culminated  in  America,  while 

1  Uchimma's  "  Japan  and  the  Japanese." 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  301 

that  through  the  east  travelled  through  India,  Thibet, 
and  China,  culminating  in  the  Manchoo  Court  of  Peking. 
The  moral  world  is  also  a  magnet  with  its  two  opposite 
poles  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  Pacific,  the  demo- 
cratic, aggressive,  inductive  America,  and  the  imperial, 
conservative,  and  deductive  China.  There  have  been  con- 
stant attempts  for  the  union  of  these  magnetic  currents. 
.  .  .  Grander  tasks  await  the  young  Japan,  who  has  the 
best  of  Europe  and  the  best  of  Asia  at  her  command. 
At  her  touch  the  circuit  is  completed,  and  the  healthy 
fluid  shall  overflow  the  earth  ! " 

In  fact,  it  seems  not  improbable  that  the  nation 
which,  having  from  ancient  times  imbibed  and  assim- 
ilated the  elements  of  Oriental  civilization,  has  been 
swallowing  and  digesting  Occidental  civilization,  may 
produce  a  new  and  strong  tissue.  It  is,  therefore, 
argued  with  no  little  force  that  "to  reconcile  the 
East  with  the  West :  to  be  the  advocate  of  the  East, 
and  the  harbinger  of  the  West :  this  we  believe  to 
be  the  mission  which  Japan  is  called  upon  to  fulfil." 

To  most  persons,  undoubtedly,  this  conception  of 
the  future  of  Japan  appears  to  be  teeming  with  na- 
tional vanity.  And,  indeed,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
New  Japan  is  extremely  egotistic.  She  views  with 
evident  self-gratulation  the  astonishing  progress  she 
has  made,  and  believes  herself  capable  of  even  more 
wonderful  transformations.  And  surely,  when  we 
contemplate  the  history  of  the  past  fifty  years,  and 
consider  the  remarkable  facility  with  which  Japan  has 
metamorphosed  herself,  we  need  not  wonder  that  she 
is  confident  or  even  boastful.     To  those  conversant 


302   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

with  this  people,  their  capabilities,  and  possibilities, 
the  above  forecast  of  Japan's  future  seems  to  photo- 
graph, with  some  exaggerations,  the  natural  and  not 
altogether  improper  self-confidence  and  reliance  of  an 
able,  growing,  and  independent  nation,  which  has 
shown  an  inexplicable  power  of  assimilating  the 
various  and  diverse  elements  of  civilization.  Even 
a  foreigner  has  so  much  confidence  in  the  grand 
future  of  Japan  that  he  expressed  himself  in  the 
"  Atlantic  Monthly  "  (June,  1892)  in  the  following 
strong  language :  — 

"  In  bringing  to  pass  the  fusion  of  eastern  and  western 
types,  which  .  .  .  shall  create  in  both  hemispheres  a 
far  more  rounded  civilization  than  either  has  ever  known, 
Japan  has  the  inestimable  privilege  of  becoming  our 
most  alert  pioneer.  Through  her  temperament,  her  in- 
dividuality, her  deeper  insight  into  the  secrets  of  the 
East,  her  ready  divining  of  the  powers  of  the  West,  .  .  . 
it  may  be  decreed  in  the  secret  council  chambers  of  des- 
tiny that  on  her  shores  shall  be  first  created  that  new 
latter-day  type  of  civilized  man  which  shall  prevail 
throughout  the  world  for  the  next  thousand  years." 

But  while  we  may  not,  perhaps,  be  fully  warranted 
in  such  sanguine  expectations,  we  cannot  help  being 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  prospects  of  Japan 
are  unusually  bright.  She  slept  for  250  years  while 
the  Occident  was  moving  rapidly  onward  in  the  path 
of  civilization,  and  she  must  now  hasten  to  catch  up. 
But  she  can  avoid  the  pitfalls  into  which  the  others, 
now  and  then,  here  and  there,  have  fallen,  and  by 
which  they  have  been  delayed.     She  can  profit  by 


THE  MISSION  OF  JAPAN  303 

the  mistakes,  by  the  costly  experiences,  of  those 
who  preceded  her  along  the  rough  road.  She  must 
move  quickly  to  make  up  for  lost  time,  but  not  too 
rapidly;  she  must  "make  haste  slowly."  She  can 
never  go  back,  except  to  ruin  and  death.  She  has 
stepped  into  the  path  of  progress  forever.  She  must 
discard  all  things,  whether  manners,  customs,  letters, 
political  forms,  superstitions,  moulds  of  thought,  or 
anything  else  which  tends  to  retard  her  onward  move- 
ments. But  it  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  even  the 
demands  of  modern  progress  will  allow  her  to  retain 
much  of  that  grace  and  charm,  of  that  quaint  sim- 
plicity, of  that  light-hearted  and  merry  nature,  all  of 
which  characterize  the  Japanese. 

We  believe  in  Japan.  We  are  confident  that  she 
has  powers,  both  patent  and  latent,  which  will  enable 
her  to  achieve  still  greater  successes  than  she  has 
yet  accomplished.  We  have  had  our  "blue  spells," 
when,  for  this  or  that  reason,  we  felt  discouraged 
over  the  apparent  failure  of  some  movement  'for  re- 
form; but  in  most  instances  we  have  eventually 
seen  success  crown  the  effort.  With  reference  to 
political  affairs  F.  V.  Dickins  has  well  expressed  it: 
"There  is  a  silent  strength  underlying  the  sound 
and  fury  of  Japanese  politics  which  will  enable  the 
country  to  weather  much  worse  storms  than  any  that 
threaten  it."^  Therefore  we  reiterate  that  we  have 
confidence  in  the  future  of  Japan  and  the  Japanese. 
We  repeat  that  their  achievements  up  to  date  are  a 

1  "  Life  of  Sir  Harry  Parkes." 


304    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

guarantee  of  continued  success  in  the  future.  We 
dare  prophesy  that  they  will  yet  display  wonderful 
transformations  in  their  development.  We  feel  per- 
fectly warranted  in  applying  Vergil's  line,  — 

Hos  successus  alit ;  possunty  quia  posse  videntur, 

which  Conington  translates  into  two  verses, — 

"  These  bring  success  their  zeal  to  fan, 
They  can  because  they  think  they  can." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"The  Awakening  of  Japan"  (Okakura);  "The  White  Peril 
in  the  Far  East"  (Gulick)  ;  "Dai  Nippon"  (Dyer),  chap.  xix. ; 
"The  Spirit  of  the  Orient"  (Knox);  and  "The  Future  of 
Japan"  (Watson). 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR 


30 


THE   NAVAL   HERO   OF  THE    WAR 
ADMIRAL  TOGO 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR 

THE  war  between  Japan  and  Russia  was  inevitable, 
because,  as  already  pointed  out  in  this  volume/ 
the  two  countries  represented  different  and  naturally  hos- 
tile interests.  Ever  since  Russia,  shut  out  from  an  open 
port  on  the  European  or  Western  Asiatic  seaboard,  began 
to  spread  eastward  through  Asia  to  seek  an  outlet  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  had  been  inevitable  that  the  two 
powers  would  some  day  come  into  collision.  And  it  can 
be  confidently  aflSrmed  that  the  Russians  did  nothing, 
while  Japan  had  done  much,  to  avert  the  conflict. 
Russia  not  infrequently  committed  overt  acts  to  provoke 
Japan,  and  had  generally  treated  the  latter  in  an  over- 
bearing and  insolent  manner. 

In  1875,  Japan  was  forced  to  give  up  Sakhalin  for  the 
bleak  and  barren  Kurile  Islands.  It  was  just  twenty  years 
later  (1895)  that  Russia  committed  her  most  unjust  act 
of  interference  and  provocation.  Japan,  after  her  suc- 
cessful conflict  with  China,  by  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki, 
had  obtained  the  cession  of  the  Liaotung  Peninsula,  of 
which  Port  Arthur  was  then  the  most  important  port. 
''  Hardly  was  the  ink  dry  on  it  [treaty]  before  the  three 
great  European  powers  —  Russia,  France,  and  Germany 
—  stepped  in,  and,  in  order  to  justify  their  interference, 
declared  that  any  holding  of  Manchurian  territory  by 
Japan  would  constitute  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  Asia."  ^ 
Japan,  exhausted  by  her  first  foreign  war  under  the  new 

1  Pages  299-300.  2  Baron  Kaneko  at  Harvard  University. 


308    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

regime,  was  in  do  position  to  offer  any  opposition  to  three 
of  tiie  greatest  World  Powers,  when  they  tendered  her 
kindly  (?)  advice.  The  only  two  powers  who  might  have 
assisted  her  against  this  combination  were  neither  suf- 
ficiently interested  nor  far-sighted  enough  to  interfere ; 
and  they  (Great  Britain  and  the  United  States)  kept  silent. 
Therefore,  Japan  had  nothing  to  do  but  to  submit  and 
accept  a  monetary  consideration  for  giving  up  her  claim 
to  the  Liaotung  Peninsula. 

This  in  itself  was  not  a  casus  belli,  but  it  was  enough 
to  arouse  to  almost  fever-heat  the  excitement  of  an  in- 
tensely patriotic  and  naturally  militant  nation.  The  Gov- 
ernment was  able  to  hold  in  check  the  indignant  people ; 
but  nothing  could  prevent  the  development  of  a  not 
unnatural  desire  for  revenge.  From  that  time  it  was 
definitely  and  positively  known  that  a  war  with  Eussia 
was  inevitable  in  the  not-distant  future ;  and  calmly  and 
carefully  the  Japanese  went  to  work  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  that  conflict.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into 
the  details  of  that  preparation,  the  thoroughness  of  which 
has  been  surprising  the  civilized  world. 

But  even  then  war  might  have  been  averted,  for  the 
spirit  of  revenge  would  have  faded  away  in  the  multitude 
of  other  interests  and  sentiments  that  have  been  pressing 
upon  Japan's  attention  within  the  past  decade.  Indeed, 
during  the  Boxer  troubles  of  1900  and  1901  in  China, 
when  the  troops  of  Japan  were  marching,  in  company 
with  those  of  Russia,  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  et  al. ,  to  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered 
foreigners  in  Peking,  it  almost  seemed  like  a  harbinger 
of  continued  peace  in  the  Far  East.  But  this  harmony 
was  only  apparent,  not  real,  —  only  temporary,  not  per- 
manent. 

In  fact,  it  was  that  very  campaign  which  enabled  Russia 
to  complete  her  practical  possession  of  Manchuria.     She 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  309 

had,  in  the  meantime,  obtained  from  China  a  lease  of 
that  very  territory  which  she  had  forced  Japan  to  give  up. 
She  had  also  obtained  permission  from  China  to  extend  the 
Siberian  Railway  through  Manchuria  to  Port  Arthur  and 
Dalny,  and  thus  obtain  an  outlet  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Measures  of  material  expansion  might  not  have  alarmed 
Japan,  if  it  had  not  been  that  Russia  sought  to  obtain 
permanent  possession  of  Manchuria  through  a  military 
occupation  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  her 
commercial  interests.  She  marched  her  troops  in  large 
numbers  into  Manchuria  in  order  to  protect  the  railway 
from  the  depredations  of  Chinese  bandits;  she  fortified 
Port  Arthur  and  built  up  Dalny,  the  great  "  fiat  city,"  and 
in  every  way  showed  no  intention  of  letting  Manchuria  slip 
out  of  her  control.  All  such  acts  did  not  tend  to  allay 
the  spirit  of  revenge  in  the  hearts  of  the  Japanese,  but  of 
course  made  them  more  and  more  indignant. 

Nor  was  this  all.  Russia  began  to  show  most  evident 
signs  of  encroaching  upon  Korea.  "  Japan  watched  all 
these  things  with  profound  anxiety.  If  there  were  any 
reality  in  the  dangers  which  Russia,  Germany,  and  France 
had  declared  to  be  incidental  to  Japanese  occupation  of 
part  of  Manchuria,  the  same  dangers  must  be  doubly  in- 
cidental to  Russian  occupation  of  the  whole  of  Manchuria  ; 
the  independence  of  Korea  would  become  illusory  .  .  .  ; 
an  obstacle  would  be  created  to  the  permanent  peace  of 
the  East."i 

If  Russia  succeeded  in  maintaining  her  position  in 
Manchuria,  her  next  step  would  take  her  into  Korea,  for 
whose  safety  and  independence  there  would  be  no  guar- 
antee ;  and  still  another  step  would  bring  her  over  against 
Japan.  Thus  would  be  endangered,  not  only  the  influence 
of  Japan  on  the  continent,  but  even  her  very  existence. 
She  would  sink  at  least  into  the  position  of  a  third-rate 

1  Captain  Brinkley  in  "  The  Outlook/* 


310    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

power,  and  would  be  completely  isolated  from  all  oppor- 
tunities for  expansion. 

But,  even  in  spite  of  insults  and  provocations,  Japan 
set  herself  to  resist  the  Russian  encroachments  by  peace- 
able means  and  measures,  in  which  she  at  last  had  the 
support  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  It  was 
to  be  presumed  that  Russia  would  keep  her  promise  to 
give  up  her  military  occupation  of  Manchuria  and  restore 
to  China  the  administration  of  the  "  Three  Provinces  "  on 
the  dates  specified  in  a  convention  with  China  signed 
April  8,  1902.  According  to  this,  Russia  agreed  to  with- 
draw her  troops  gradually  from  Manchuria  and  entirely 
resign  her  control  thereof  within  one  year. 

But  when  the  time  came  for  the  final  evacuation,  Russia 
showed  no  sign  of  intending  to  carry  out  her  agreement 
After  futile  protests  from  Japan,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
United  States,  Japan  suggested  to  Russia  to  open  up 
negotiations  concerning  their  respective  interests  in  the 
Far  East;  and  to  this  Russia  assented.  It  is  scarcely 
profitable  to  follow  the  devious  windings  of  these  nego- 
tiations, which  were  delayed  by  Russia  on  one  pretext  or 
another.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  that  Japan  invited  Russia 
to  nothing  more  than  "to  subscribe  to  the  policy  enun- 
ciated by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  —  the  policy 
of  the  '  open  door '  and  of  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese 
and  [the]  Korean  Empires.'* 

During  the  course  of  the  prolonged  negotiations,  Russia 
was  moving  troops  to  the  scene  of  action  and  making 
other  military  preparations.  These  did  not  necessarily 
mean  that  she  anticipated  war,  but  that  she  at  least 
expected  to  overawe  little  Japan  and  thus  obtain  her 
desires. 

''The  only  alternatives  for  Japan  were  war  or  total 
and  permanent  effacement  in  Asia.  She  chose  war,  and 
in  fighting,  she  is  fighting  the  battle  of  Anglo-Saxondom 


DISTINGUISHED  NAVAL  COMMANDERS 


ADMIRAL  URIU 
ADMIRAL  KAMIMURA         COMMANDER  HIRORE 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  311 

as  well  as  of  herself,  —  the  battle  of  free  and  equal  op- 
portunities for  all  without  undue  encroachment  upon  the 
sovereign  rights  or  territorial  integrity  of  China  or  Korea, 
against  a  military  dictatorship,  against  a  programme  of 
ruthless  territorial  aggrandizement,  and  against  a  policy 
of  selfish  restrictions."  ^ 

But  it  was  not  till  after  six  months  of  negotiations 
that  the  Japanese  Government,  on  February  5,  190_4^ 
*' having  exhausted  without  effect  every  meansTbf  con- 
ciliation," and  "  finding  that  their  just  representations 
and  moderate  and  unselfish  proposals  in  the  interest  of  a 
firm  and  lasting  peace  in  the  extreme  East  are  not  receiv- 
ing the  consideration  which  is  their  due,"  officially  an- 
nounced to  the  Russian  Government  that  they  would  not 
only  "  terminate  the  present  futile  negotiations,"  but  also 
"  sever  their  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Imperial  Rus- 
sian Government,"  and  "  reserve  to  themselves  the  right 
to  take  such  independent  action  as  they  may  deem  best."  ^ 
This  was  tantamount  to  a  declaration  of  war. 

On  February  6,  Admiral  Togo  left  Saseho  under  oflScial 
instructions,  and  about  midnight  of  February  8  struck 
the  first  blow  of  the  war.  Six  of  his  torpedo-boats 
attacked  the  Russian  squadron  in  the  harbor  of  Port 
Arthur,  inflicted  serious  damage  upon  the  enemy,  and 
retired  without  much  loss.  On  the  following  day  a 
detachment  of  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Uriu  defeated 
two  Russian  cruisers  in  the  harbor  of  Chemulpo,  Korea. 
Thus  within  a  few  hours  the  Japanese  gained  control  of 
the  sea,  and  landed  troops,  who  soon  entered  Seoul. 

The  formal  declaration  of  war  was  made  by  Russia  on 
February  9,  and  by  Japan  on  February  10,  for  publication 
in  the  newspapers  of  the  following  day,  which  was  the  an- 
niversary of  the  founding  of  the  Japanese  Empire  in  660 
B.C.  and  of  the  promulgation  of  the  Constitution  in  1889. 

1  Captain  Brinkley.  2  Official. 


312        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

On  February  23,  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Japan 
and  Korea  was  formally  signed  at  Seoul.^     On  the  next 

1  The  following  is  the  authorized  English  text  of  the  Protocol, 
signed  at  Seoul,  on  February  23,  1904 :  — 

Mr.  Hayashi,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary 
of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  and  Major-General  Yi  Tchi 
Yong,  Minister  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  ad  interim  of  His 
Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Korea,  being  respectively  duly  empowered 
for  the  purpose,  have  agreed  upon  the  following  Articles  :  — 

Article  I.  —  For  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  permanent  and 
solid  friendship  between  Japan  and  Korea  and  firmly  establishing 
peace  in  the  Far  East,  the  Imperial  Government  of  Korea  shall 
place  full  confidence  in  the  Imperial  Government  of  Japan  and 
adopt  the  advice  of  the  latter  in  regard  to  improvements  in 
administration. 

Article  II.  —  The  Imperial  Government  of  Japan  shall  in  a 
spirit  of  firm  friendship  insure  the  safety  and  repose  of  the 
Imperial  House  of  Korea. 

Article  III. — The  Imperial  Government  of  Japan  definitively 
guarantees  the  independence  and  territorial  integrity  of  the  Korean 
Empire. 

Article  IV. — In  case  the  welfare  of  the  Imperial  House  of 
Korea  or  the  territorial  integrity  of  Korea  is  endangered  by  aggres- 
sion of  a  third  Power  or  internal  disturbances,  the  Imperial  Gov 
ernment  of  Japan  shall  immediately  take  such  necessary  measures 
as  the  circumstances  require,  and  in  such  cases  the  Imperial 
Government  of  Korea  shall  give  full  facilities  to  promote  the  action 
of  the  Imperial  Japanese  Government. 

The  Imperial  Government  of  Japan  may,  for  the  attainment  of 
the  above-mentioned  object,  occupy,  when  the  circumstances  re- 
quire it,  such  places  as  may  be  necessary  from  strategical  points 
of  view. 

Article  V.  —  The  Governments  of  the  two  countries  shall  not 
in  future,  without  mutual  consent,  conclude  with  a  third  Power  such 
an  arrangement  as  may  be  contrary  to  the  principle  of  the  present 
Protocol. 

Article  VI. — Details  in  connection  with  the  present  Protocol 
.  shall  be  arranged  as  the  circumstances  may  require,  between  the 
Representative  of  Japan  and  the  Minister  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs  of  Korea. 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  313 

night  began  a  series  of  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
Japanese  squadron  to  block  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  of 
Port  Arthur.  After  several  essays,  in  one  of  which 
Commander  Hirose  met  his  heroic  end,  the  Japanese  so 
far  succeeded  that  the  Russian  war  vessels  were  shut  up 
in  the  harbor  for  a  long  period.  This  enabled  Japan  to 
land  troops  with  perfect  immunity  at  several  points  on 
the  coast  of  Manchuria. 

In  the  meantime,  the  First  Army,  under  General  Ku- 
roki,  was  marching  across  Korea  without  encountering 
much  opposition,  and,  by  brilliant  strategy,  succeeded  in 
crossing  the  Yalu  River  in  the  face  of  a  well-fortified 
Russian  army.  The  Second  Army,  under  General  Oku, 
landed  at  Kinchow,  and  after  bloody  contests,  especially 
at  Nanshan,  was  able  to  get  possession  of  Dalny,  and 
sever  connections  between  the  Russians  in  Port  Arthur 
and  their  main  force  under  General  Kuropatkin.  The 
Third  Army,  under  General  Nodzu,  having  landed  at- 
Takushan,  soon  got  into  touch  with  the  First  Army ;  and 
together  they  continued  their  march  northward  in  the 
face  of  constant  opposition. 

When  Port  Arthur  was  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
Russian  forces,  still  another  army  was  sent  out,  under 
General  Nogi,  to  carry  on  the  investment  of  that  place, 
so  that  the  former  armies  might  be  free  to  give  undivided 
attention  to  General  Kuropatkin's  force.  The  attempt  of 
the  latter  to  relieve  Port  Arthur  was  checked  by  the 
Japanese  in  bloody  battles  at  Telissu  and  Kaiping,  after 
which  they  advanced  northward  toward  Liaoyang. 

In  the  meantime,  in  March,  the  Imperial  Diet  had  met 
and  voted  unanimously  the  Government's  proposals  to 
raise  from  various  sources  a  special  war  fund  of  yen 
576,000,000.  Indeed,  in  every  possible  way,  the  Japanese 
people,  as  a  unit,  supported  the  Government  in  the  carry- 
ing on  of  war,  even  to  undergoing  many  hardships.     All 


314    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

domestic  loans,  thus  far  issued  have  been  over-subscribed 
three  or  four  times. 

Moreover,  on  the  last  day  of  March,  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  Commodore  Perry's  treaty  with  Japan,  a 
memorable  meeting  to  celebrate  the  event  was  held  in  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Hall,  Tokyo.  It  was  attended  by  a  large 
number  of  both  Japanese  and  foreigners,  and,  after 
listening  to  eloquent  speeches,  unanimously  adopted  a 
resolution  to  raise  a  Perry  Memorial  Relief  Fund  for  the 
destitute  families  of  Japanese  soldiers  and  sailors.  The 
subscription  of  over  60,000  yen  on  the  spot  has  since 
been  increased  to  about  100,000  yen. 

The  events  off  Port  Arthur  were  colored  still  more 
tragically  on  April  13,  when  the  Russian  flagship  "  Petro- 
pavlovsk  "  of  Admiral  Makaroff  was  sunk,  and  almost  all 
on  board,  including  the  admiral  and  the  famous  painter 
Verestchagin,  perished.  In  May,  the  Japanese  suffered 
their  first  heavy  losses  in  the  sinking  of  the  *'Hatsuse  " 
and  the  "  Yoshino." 

In  April  the  Russian  Vladivostok  squadron  had  taken 
the  offensive  and  sunk  a  Japanese  transport  with  a  few 
troops  on  board.  After  that  it  made  occasional  sorties 
toward  the  Korean  Straits  in  the  hope  of  creating  a  diver- 
sion from  Port  Arthur,  and  in  one  instance  sjrok  the 
*'  Hitachi  Maru  "  with  a  large  number  of  Japanese  troops 
on  board.  Moreover,  in  July  this  squadron  succeeded  in 
getting  through  the  Tsugaru  Straits  to  the  eastern  coast 
of  Japan,  where  it  committed  depredations,  even  just  off 
the  entrance  of  T6ky5  Bay.  But  later  it  was  met  in  the 
Korean  Straits  by  Admiral  Kamimura's  squadron  and 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  the  "  Rurik." 

By  the  early  part  of  August  the  army  investing  Port 
Arthur  had  made  such  progress,  in  spite  of  severe  opposi- 
tion, that  it  became  extremely  dangerous  for  the  Russian 
fleet  to  remain  there  longer.     Therefore,  on  August  10, 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  315 

they  made  a  sortie  with  the  intention  of  escaping  to 
Vladivostok.  But  Admiral  Togo  was  not  to  be  caught 
napping,  and  engaged  in  battle  with  the  squadron.  A  few 
vessels,  badly  damaged,  regained  Port  Arthur;  others, 
some  of  which  were  severely  injured,  escaped  to  neutral 
ports,  where  they  had  to  be  dismantled;  the  "Novik" 
eluded  its  pursuers  for  a  short  time,  but  was  finally  over- 
taken and  sunk  in  Korsakoff  Harbor,  Sakhalin. 

On  August  23  began  the  great  battle  of  Liaoyang, 
which  continued  for  over  a  week,  and  deserves  to  go 
down  on  the  pages  of  history  as  one  of  the  severest, 
bloodiest,  and  probably  most  decisive  battles  ever  fought. 
It  was  only  by  the  most  tremendous  exertions  that 
General  Kuropatkin  was  enabled  to  save  his  army  from 
having  its  retreat  cut  off  by  the  flanking  movement  of 
Kuroki,  while  Oku  and  Nodzu  were  pounding  away  from 
other  directions. 

The  attempt  of  Kuropatkin  to  retrieve  his  fortunes  by 
advancing  with  heavy  reenforcements  to  retake  Liaoyang 
met  with  another  disastrous  defeat  in  the  battle  of 
the  Shaho  River,  October  10-15.  After  that,  the  two 
armies  practically  went  into  Winter  quarters  and  engaged 
in  nothing  more  than  skirmishes  until  January,  1905, 
when  Mitschenko's  cavalry  made  an  unsuccessful  raid 
upon  Newchang  and  Yinkow,  and  Kuropatkin's  army, 
apparently  urged  on  by  the  political  exigencies  caused 
by  discontent  at  home,  attempted  a  flanking  movement  on 
Liaoyang,  but  was  repulsed  in  the  battle  of  Heikeutai. 

In  view  of  the  lull  in  hostilities  along  at  the  front, 
popular  interest  was  once  more  directed  toward  Port 
Arthur.  The  Japanese  navy  continued  faithfully  its  task 
of  watching  the  harbor ;  and,  although  it  could  not  main- 
tain an  absolutely  complete  blockade,  it  was  nevertheless 
able  to  prevent  exit  and  entrance,  except  in  the  case  of 
Chinese  junks  and   small   steamers,  which  occasionally 


316    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

succeeded  in  running  the  blockade  under  cover  of  night 
or  stormy  weather.  The  navy  also  cooperated  with  the 
army  by  means  of  frequent  bombardments  of  the  harbor, 
in  which  the  remnants  of  the  Russian  fleet  had  sought 
refuge,  and  even  of  the  city  of  Port  Arthur. 

The  Japanese  army  persistently  pushed  the  attack  from 
the  land  side  ;  and  the  Russians  stubbornly  resisted  every 
step  of  the  advance.  The  former  employed  both  direct 
and  flanking  attacks,  and  utilized  every  device  known  in 
engineering  to  overcome  the  "impregnable"  fortress, 
so  well  fortified  both  by  nature  and  by  art.  Slowly  but 
steadily  the  besiegers  pressed  on  and  obtained  possession 
of  various  forts.  On  October  30  they  made  a  general 
assault,  in  which  they  succeeded  in  capturing  several  im- 
portant positions.  Just  one  month  later,  the  ''  203-metre 
Hill "  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  and  gave  them 
the  command  of  the  inner  harbor.  In  a  few  days  they 
had  succeeded  in  completely  disabling  the  remnants  of 
the  Russian  squadron,  so  that  the  greater  portion  of  their 
own  fleet  was  released  from  its  long  and  arduous  blockade, 
and  enabled  to  undergo  a  thorough  overhauling  in  the 
docks.  A  portion  of  it,  under  Vice-Admiral  Uriu,  was 
despatched  to  watch  the  course  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  and 
every  preparation  was  made  to  accord  to  these  visitors 
as  warm  a  reception  as  possible. 

Admirals  Togo  and  Kamimura,  with  their  suites,  re- 
turned, for  a  short  period,  to  Tokyo,  where  they  were 
greeted  on  December  30  with  an  enthusiastic  welcome. 
And,  when  the  eventful  year  1904  passed  away,  it  was 
generally  thought  that  Port  Arthur  might  be  able  to 
hold   out  a  month   longer. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  easily  imagined  with  what  com- 
plete surprise  came  the  news  that  on  January  1  General 
Stoessel  had  opened  negotiations  with  General  Nogi  con- 
cerning surrender.     "Hope  deferred  maketh  the  heart 


DISTINGUISHED  LAND   COMMANDERS 

GENERAL  BARON  KODAMA         GENERAL   COUNT  NOGI 

ADMIRAL  i^RINCB  ITO 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  817 

sick " :  but  the  relief  from  the  long  suspense  showed 
itself  in  a  kind  of  prolonged  banzai  and  a  series  of  cele- 
brations which  lasted  through  the  month.  The  stubborn 
defence  and  the  bravery  of  the  defenders  had  awakened 
in  every  Japanese  heart  a  feeling  of  admiration ;  so  that 
the  chivalrous  treatment  of  the  garrison  found  a  ready 
response  on  all  sides. 

During  most  of  the  month  of  February,  the  two  armies 
confronting  each  other  along  the  banks  of  the  Shaho 
River  remained  in  apparent  inactivity,  except  for  occa- 
sional skirmishes,  but  in  real  preparation  for  another 
battle.  Just  when  this  began  it  is  a  little  difficult  to  state 
precisely,  because  some  of  the  earlier  operations  were 
only  feints  to  disguise  the  real  purpose.  On  February  24, 
the  Japanese  gained  a  point  by  the  capture  of  Ching-ho- 
cheng  after  two  days  of  hard  fighting.  And  from  this 
time  the  struggle  went  on  practically  without  cessation 
for  two  or  three  weeks.  Within  a  few  days  the  Japanese 
had  turned  both  flanks  of  the  Russian  army,  which  was 
compelled  to  beat  a  precipitate  retreat  in  great  confusion 
and  barely  escaped  complete  annihilation.  The  Japanese 
pushed  on  in  hot  pursuit,  and  occupied  Fushun,  Mukden, 
Tiehling,  Kaiyuan,  and  Changtu.  This  was  the  result  of 
the  great  battle  of  Mukden,  which  was  much  more  deci- 
sive than  even  Liaoyang,  and  ended  the  military  activity 
in  Manchuria  for  several  months. 

In  the  meantime  the  Baltic  fleet  had  been  leisurely 
making  its  way  eastward,  and,  apparently  regardless  of 
international  law,  had  been  enjoying  the  hospitality  of 
neutral  waters,  especially  those  of  Madagascar  and  An- 
nam.  But,  although  Japan,  supported  by  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  vigorously  protested  against  the 
flagrant  violations  of  international  law  in  the  abuse  of 
French  hospitality,  yet  she  did  not  allow  herself  to  swerve 
from  her  original  plan  concerning  the  Baltic  fleet,  or  to 


318   A   HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

be  lured  away  from  her  own  strategic  position  to  a  battle- 
field of  Russia's  choosing.  The  Japanese  fleet,  under  the 
indomitable  Togo,  was  watching  and  waiting  in  the  waters 
between  Japan  and  Korea ;  and,  as  all  things  come  to 
those  who  wait,  to  the  Japanese  came  finally  the  Russian 
fleet,  steering  boldly  through  the  Tsushima  channel  for 
Vladivostok.  May  27  and  28  (the  latter  the  birthday  of 
the  Empress  of  Japan)  are  the  red-letter  dates  of  the 
great  naval  battle,  which  resulted  in  the  practical  annihi- 
lation of  the  Baltic  fleet,  with  tremendous  loss  to  the 
Russians  and  only  slight  damage  to  the  Japanese.  The 
Battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  as  it  is  oflficially  designated, 
was  the  decisive  conflict  of  the  war ;  and  it  deserves  also 
to  rank  among  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world's  history. 
If  Togo  had  been  defeated,  the  communications  of  the 
immense  Japanese  army  in  Manchuria  would  have  been 
severed,  and  Japan  itself  would  have  been  at  the  mercy 
of  the  depredations  of  the  Russian  fleet.  But  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  latter  was  so  complete,  that  it  is  not  strange 
that  Russia  was  willing  at  last  to  listen  to  the  tactful 
intervention  of  President  Roosevelt.  Peace  commissioners 
were  appointed  by  both  combatants  to  meet  in  some  suit- 
able place  in  the  United  States  about  August  1.  The 
Japanese  representatives  were  Baron  Komura,  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  Mr.  Takahira,  Minister  to  the 
United  States ;  and  the  Russian  representatives  were 
Count  Sergius  Witte,  President  of  the  Imperial  Committee 
of  Ministers,  and  Baron  Rosen,  Minister  to  the  United 
States. 

Accordingly,  avoiding  the  heat  of  Washington,  the 
peace  envoys  convened  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  on  August 
9,  after  paying  their  respects  to  President  Roosevelt. 
The  Japanese  presented  the  following  twelve  articles 
for  the  consideration  of  their  opponents: 


COUNT   KOMURA 


ministp:r  takahira 

THE  JAPANESE   PEACE   ENVOYS 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  319 

1.  That  Russia  recognize  Japan's  preponderating  influence 
in  Korea. 

2.  That  Russia  and  Japan  evacuate  Manchuria. 

3.  That  Japan  restore  Chinese  sovereignty  and  civil  govern- 
ment in  Manchuria. 

4.  That  both  powers  respect  Chinese  sovereignty  in  Man- 
churia and  the  principle  of  equal  commercial  opportunity  there 
for  all  nations. 

5.  That  the  island  of  Sakhalin  be  ceded  to  Japan. 

6.  That  Russia  surrender  to  Japan  all  rights  accruing  under 
Chinese  leases  of  the  Liaotung  peninsula,  including  Port 
Arthur,  Dalny,  and  the  Blonde  and  Elliott  islands. 

7.  That  Russia  surrender  to  China  by  arrangement  with 
Japan  the  branch  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  railway  from  Harbin 
to  Port  Arthur  and  Newchwang,  with  retrocession  of  all  privi- 
leges under  the  concession  of  1898. 

8.  That  the  Russian  concessions  obtained  in  1896  by  which 
the  short  route  connecting  the  Trans-Siberian  and  Ussuri  rail- 
ways in  northern  Manchuria  be  given  to  the  Chinese  Eastern 
railway,  Chinese  imperial  police  to  be  substituted  for  the 
Russian  guards. 

9.  That  Russia  pay  Japan  the  substantial  costs  of  the  war. 

10.  That  Russia  surrender  to  Japan  all  warships  interned  in 
far  Asiatic  waters. 

11.  That  Russia  limit  strictly  the  naval  establishment  main- 
tained in  neutral  waters  of  the  far  East. 

12.  That  Russia  grant  fishing  rights  to  Japan  along  the 
Russian  littoral  in  Siberia. 

After  the  agreement  by  Russia  to  certain  of  these 
articles,  and  skilful  manoeuvring  by  the  Russian  envoys 
until  the  demand  by  Japan  for  an  indemnity  was  prac- 
tically the  one  remaining  cause  for  dispute  between  them, 
the  world  was  startled  on  August  29  by  the  surrender  of 
the  Japanese  of  all  demand  for  indemnification  and  the 
consequent  declaration  of  peace.  As  amended  the  treaty 
grants  to  Japan  all  that  Japan  contended  for  before  the 
declaration  of  war  except  the  maintenance  of  the  terri- 
torial integrity  of  China,  with  the  addition  of  the  valuable 


320    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

fishing  rights  along  the  Siberian  coast  and  the  right  to 
establish  a  consular  service  throughout  eastern  Russia. 

The  two  powers  mutually  obligate  themselves  not  to 
fortify  the  Russo-Korean  frontier  nor  to  erect  fortifica- 
tions on  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  the  more  valuable  portion 
of  which,  situated  below  the  fiftieth  meridian,  is  ceded  to 
Japan.  Japan  obtains  the  Chinese  Eastern  railway  and 
the  right  to  build  a  branch  line  to  Kirin,  while  the  South 
Manchuria  railway  is  to  be  used  for  commercial  purposes 
only,  both  powers  maintaining  guards  along  its  right  of 
way.  Korea,  Manchuria,  and  Siberia  are  opened  to 
trade  on  the  most  favored  nation  basis,  and  Manchuria 
is  given  the  "  open  door"  for  all  the  world  to  enter. 

Japan  finds  herself  in  possession  of  the  sea  and  land 
routes  to  Peking  through  the  ownership  of  Port  Arthur, 
and  her  influence  in  China  has  waxed  as  that  of  Russia 
has  waned,  the  subjects  of  the  czar  standing  now  in  the 
territorial  position  they  occupied  in  1890,  with  every 
diplomatic  advantage  then  held  at  the  Chinese  capital 
practically  annihilated. 

By  the  surrender  of  all  claim  for  compensation,  except 
that  for  the  care  of  Russian  prisoners  of  war,  and  by 
the  return  of  the  warships  interned  in  far  Eastern  waters, 
Japan  has  shown  herself  as  magnanimous  as  brave,  as 
thoughtful  for  the  peace  of  the  world  as  for  the  details 
which  have  brought  her  such  success.  Scrupulously  re- 
specting all  the  rules  of  war,  Japan  has  also  set  the  world 
a  new  standard  of  hygienic  efficiency  in  the  care  of  the 
wounded  and  especially  in  the  prevention  of  disease 
among  her  soldiers  in  the  field. 

Space  fails  to  tell  of  innumerable  deeds  of  Spartan 
heroism  at  the  front ;  of  the  calmness  and  dignity  of  the 
Japanese  people  in  the  time  of  war,  which  they  do  not 
allow  to  interfere  with  their  usual  daily  duties ;  of  work- 
ing overtime   to  increase   the  productive  wealth  of   the 


f 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  321 

country  in  this  crisis  ;  of  the  extra  labor  performed,  even 
at  night,  that  a  neighbor's  field  or  business  may  not 
suffer  loss  during  his  absence  from  home  to  fight  his 
country's  battles  ;  of  the  work  of  women,  young  and  old, 
to  provide  necessary  clothing  and  "comfort  bags"  for 
those  at  the  front ;  of  the  suffering  and  self-sacrifice  of 
many  at  home  that  loved  ones  may  serve  the  country  on 
the  battlefield ;  of  the  kindly  care  of  Russian  prisoners, 
who  are  "  treated  more  like  guests  "  ;  of  the  work  of  the 
Red  Cross  Society,  and  its  abundant  labors  both  at  home 
and  at  the  front.  The  Japanese  are  truly  heroic  in  every 
sense  of  the  word. 

Two  features  have  already  stood  out  prominently  in 
this  war, — the  "splendid  tenacity"  of  the  Japanese 
soldiery,  and  the  coordination  of  the  movements  of  their 
armies  and  navy.  The  strategic  phase  of  the  war  reflects 
the  utmost  credit  upon  Yamagata,  Oyama,  Kodama,  and 
the  others  who  planned  th^ campaigns. 

It  ought  not  to  be  neceSpry  to  consider  seriously  the  so- 
called  "  Yellow  Peril,"  but  it  may  be  well  to  refer  briefly 
to  this  bogy.  For  such  an  idea  there  is  not  an  iota  of  a 
reason.  It  is  true  that  the  Japanese  are  ambitious  to 
become  the  leaders  and  teachers  of  Korea,  China,  and 
Siam ;  ^  but  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  leading  and  teaching 
them  in  civilization.  Japan  has  turned  her  back,  whether 
for  good  or  for  ill,  upon  Oriental  civilization,  and  has 
turned  her  face,  whether  for  good  or  ill,  toward  Occi- 
dental civilization.  By  this  is  not  meant,  either  that  she 
will  throw  away  all  things  Oriental,  or  that  she  will  accept 
all  things  Occidental.  But  it  is  simply  meant,  as  before 
pointed  out,^  that  she  will  be  the  true  reconciler  between 
East  and  West,  and  will  develop  that  which  is  good  and 
useful  in  both  civilizations.  It  is  her  purpose,  therefore, 
not  to  array  the  East  against  the  West,  but  to  bring  them 
closer  together  in  various  bonds  of  unity.  It  would  be 
1  See  Chapter  XXI.  2  Pages  14  and  301. 


322    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

absolutely  impossible  for  her  to  take  any  backward  step 
in  the  path  which  she  has  begun  to  tread,  and  in  which 
she  is  striving  earnestly  and  succeeding  rapidly  in  catch- 
ing up  with  Western  nations.  Japan  represents  in  the 
Far  East  the  ideals  of  Western  civilization  more  than  does 
Russia.  The  immense  empire  of  China  with  its  teeming 
population  under  Russian  domination  or  only  under 
Russian  influence  would  constitute  a  real  "  Yellow  Peril," 
or  "  Muscovite  Menace,"  terrible  to  contemplate.  But 
Japanese  leadership  or  hegemony  in  Korean  and  Chinese 
afifairs  constitutes  a  guarantee  of  peace  and  prosperity, 
of  the  "  open  door,"  of  the  spread  of  true  civilization,  in 
the  Far  East. 

The  real  policy  of  Japan  in  this  war  has  been  clearly 
set  forth  in  various  ways,  of  which  one  case  follows : 

On  May  16  there  was  held  in  Tokyo  a  most  significant 
mass  meeting  of  representatives  of  all  kinds  and  shades 
of  philosophies,  cults,  and  regions.  The  thousand  per- 
sons present  included  forei^  missionaries,  American 
and  British,  and  Japanese  Shintoists,  Buddhists,  Roman 
Catholics,  Greek  Catholics,  and  Protestants  of  various 
denominations,  besides  probably  many  free-thinkers. 
There  was  a  small  number  of  women,  both  Japanese 
and   foreign,  in   attendance. 

There  were  several  speakers,  all  of  whom  dwelt 
upon  the  necessity  of  union  in  the  present  crisis  in  the 
history  of  Japan.  From  the  "Japan  Mail"  we  extract 
the  following  paragraphs  in  summary  of  some  of  the 
addresses :  — 

"Mr.  Ouchi,  the  representative  of  Buddhism,  declared 
that  the  Japanese  do  not  constitute  the  Yellow  Peril.  The 
Mongols  constitute  it,  and,  above  all,  the  Russians,  who 
are  Mongols.  Napoleon  had  well  said  that  a  Russian  has 
a  white  skin  over  a  yellow  heart.  Japan  has  a  yellow 
skin  over  a  white  heart.     The  whole  practice  of  Russia, 


i 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  323 

her  boundless  aggressions,  her  despotism  and  intolerance, 
mark  her  as  the  true  Yellow  Peril  of  the  era." 

''Mr.  Shibata,  representing  Shinto,  said  that  the  pity 
of  Buddhism,  the  charity  (love)  of  Christianity,  and  the 
pure  heart  of  Shinto  are  all  one  and  the  same  thing  under 
different  names." 

"  Dr.  Imbrie  (representative  of  Christianity)  adduced 
as  proofs  that  religion  and  race  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  present  war :  first,  the  fact  that  one  of  the  belligerents, 
Japan,  h^|^constitution  guaranteeing  freedom  of  con- 
science ;  I^^Bdly,  the  meeting  now  assembled,  where  all 
creeds  a^^R  races  united  in  a  common  cause.  He  be- 
lieved that  the  heart  of  the  nation  was  with  them  in  this 
matter,  and  that  such  an  assembly  might  be  convened  in 
any  part  of  Japan.  He  believed  also  that  the  victory 
in  the  war  would  be  with  Japan  for  the  sake  of  the  prin- 
ciples she  represented." 

The  meeting  unaninAsly  adopted  the  following 
resolution :  —  T 

"The  war  now  existing  between  Japan  and  Russia  has 
for  its  object,  on  the  part  of  Japan,  the  security  of  the 
empire  and  the  permanent  peace  of  the  East.  It  is 
carried  on  in  the  interests  of  justice,  humanity,  and  the 
civilization  of  the  world.  With  differences  between  races 
or  religions  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  do.  We,  there- 
fore, meeting  together  without  distinction  of  race  or 
religion,  agree  that  we  will  endeavor  to  publish  to  the 
world,  each  in  a  manner  accordant  with  the  methods 
observed  in  the  religious  body  to  which  he  belongs,  the 
real  purpose  of  the  present  war  as  now  described.  We 
also  express  a  most  earnest  desire  for  the  speedy  accom- 
plishment of  an  honorable  peace." 

The  significance  of  this  meeting  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. It  is  a  perfectly  conclusive  answer  to  the 
attempts  made  in  various  quarters  "  to  foment  an  anti- 


324   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  crusade  on  the  ground  of  racial  and  religious 
prejudices."  Japan  stands  before  the  world  as  a  cham- 
pion of  "  the  equality  and  fraternity  of  all  races."  The 
so-called  *' Yellow  Peril"  is  a  myth,  a  fantasy,  a  de- 
lusion; the  reality  is  to  be  found  in  the  "Golden  Op- 
portunity "  to  win  the  Orient  for  Christ  through  Japan's 
leadership. 

H.  E.  Count  Katsura,  in  his  oflBcial  capacity  as  Prime 
Minister  and  speaking  in  the  name  of  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor,  has  given  assurances  that  the  "  l|||^w  Peril" 
is  a  myth,  and  that  the  religious  libert^^»iranteed 
in  the  Japanese  constitution  is  to  be  en^^d.  He 
has  stated  most  emphatically  that  "  Japan  stands  for 
religious  freedom."  The  leading  statesmen  of  Japan, 
whether  in  or  out  of  office,  assert  most  positively  that 
Japan's  interests  in  the  Far  East  are  practically  iden- 
tical with  those  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
and  that  she  desires  to  work^  in  harmony  with  those 
nations.^ 

The  cause  of  Christian  civilization  in  Japan  has  been 
indirectly  benefited  by  this  war.  The  people,  with  minds 
broadened  by  the  responsibilities  of  their  country,  and 
with  hearts  touched  by  the  practical  sympathy  of  Chris- 
tian nations,  are  listening  with  deeper  interest  to  the 
presentation  of  Christian  truths.  The  noble  work  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  at  Antung  proved 
so  successful  that  the  military  authorities  soon  requested 

1  Certainly  the  Japanese  enjoy  more  social  freedom  and  politi- 
cal privileges  than  the  subjects  of  the  Czar.  Intellectual  liberty 
Is  not  repressed  in  Japan  as  in  Russia,  and  freedom  of  assembly 
and  of  the  press  is  permitted  in  Japan,  but  not  in  Russia.  The 
administration  of  law  and  justice  in  Japan  is  by  far  more  humane 
than  in  Russia  with  its  Siberian  horrors.  Again,  strongest  of  all, 
nominally  non-Christian  Japan  grants  religious  liberty,  while  nomi- 
nally Christian  Russia  cruelly  persecutes  Jews  and  Stundists.  In 
fact,  in  what  constitutes  true  greatness,  Japan  is  superior  to  Russia. 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  325 

its  extension  to  other  portions  of  Manchuria.  The 
Japanese  have  felt  that  though  their  nation  is  nominally 
non-Christian,  yet  it  is  fighting  the  battle  of  Christian 
civilization  against  a  nation  nominally  Christian.  The 
war  has  been  one  of  the  most  momentous  in  history,  and 
decides  whether  the  Far  East  is  to  be  dominated  by  con- 
servative, despotic  Russia  or  directed  by  progressive, 
liberal  Japan. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR 

Feb.    5,  1904.     Severance  of  diplomatic  relations. 

8-9.   Japanese  naval  victories  at  Port  Arthur  and  Che- 
mulpo. 
9.    Russian  declaration  of  war. 
10.    Japanese  declaration  of  war. 

23.  Treaty  of  Japan  with  Korea. 

24.  First  attempt  to  block  Port  Arthur. 

March  13.  Marquis  Ito  starts  on  special  mission  to  Korea. 

27.  Imperial  Diet  passed  War  Budget.     Second  attempt 

to  block  Port  Arthur. 

31.  Fiftieth  anniversary  of  Perry's  treaty  with  Japan. 

April  13.  "  Petropavlovsk  "  sunk  by  Japanese  mine. 

25.  Transport  "  Kinshiu  Maru  "  sunk  by  Russians. 
May   1.  Battle  of  the  Yalu  River. 

3.    Third  attempt  to  block  Port  Arthur. 

15.  "  Hatsuse  "  and  "  Yoshino  "  sunk. 

16.  Pan-Religion  Mass  Meeting,  Tokyd. 
25,  26.   Battle  of  Nanshan. 

27.   Occupation  of  Dalny. 
June  15.   "  Hitachi  Maru  "  (transport)  sunk.    Battle  of  Telissu. 

23.  Naval  battle  off  Port  Arthur. 

27.   Japanese  capture  Ta,  Motien,  and  Fenshui  Passes. 
July    6-9.   Battle  of  Kaiping. 

21-30.   Vladivostok  Squadron  in  Pacific  Ocean. 

24.  Battle  of  Tashikiao. 

31.   Japanese  capture  Simucheng. 
Aug.  10.   Russian  fleet  made  unsuccessful  sortie  from  Port 
Arthur. 
14.   Vladivostok  fleet  defeated. 
20.   "  Novik  "  sunk  in  Korsakoff  Harbor. 
Aug.  23-Sept.  4.    Battle  of  Liaoyang. 
Oct.  10-15.    Battle  of  the  Shaho  River. 
30.   General  assault  on  Port  Arthur. 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  327 

Nov.  30.   Japanese  capture  203-metre  Hill,  P.  A. 
Dec.    3-11.   Destruction  Port  Arthur  Squadron. 

30.    Togo  and  Kamimura  reach  Tokyo. 
Jan.    1,  1905.    Surrender  of  Port  Arthur. 

25-29.   Battle  of  Heikeutai. 
Feb.  24-March  10.     Battle  of  Mukden. 
Feb.  24.   Japanese  occupied  Ching-ho-cheng. 

Japanese  occupied  Fushun. 

Japanese  occupied  Mukden. 

Japanese  occupied  Tiehling. 

Japanese  occupied  Kaiyuan. 

Japanese  occupied  Fakuman. 

Japanese  occupied  Changtu. 

Battle  of  the  Japan  Sea. 

President  Roosevelt  broached  subject  of  peace. 

Japanese  occupied  Kangping. 

Japanese  occupied  Liaoyangwopeng. 

Sakhalin  in  hands  of  Japanese. 

Vladivostok  isolated. 

Peace  envoys  convene  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Terms  of  treaty  of  peace  settled. 

Summary 

A  brief  summary  of  the  war  shows  that  at  the  close  of  th? 
570  days  which  it  lasted  Russia  had  629,614  men  in  the  field 
in  Manchuria,  to  which  Japan  was  able  to  oppose  912,730, 
with  1116  Russian  cannon  to  1030  Japanese.  The  Japanese 
captured  67,701  Russians,  losing  only  646  prisoners  themselves. 
The  total  casualty  list  on  land  shows  294,779  Russians  killed 
and  wounded  to  113,086  Japanese.  The  total  loss  to  Russia 
in  ships  is  estimated  at  $155,560,000,  including  twelve  battle- 
ships, five  armored  cruisers,  one  coast  defense  vessel,  six 
cruisers,  fourteen  converted  cruisers,  and  nineteen  destroyers 
sunk,  and  two  battleships,  two  coast  defense  vessels,  one  con- 
verted cruiser,  and  two  destroyers  captured,  nineteen  other 
naval  vessels  being  driven  into  internment.  Japan's  naval 
loss  includes  two  battleships,  four  cruisers,  as  many  converted 
cruisers,  and  two  torpedo  boat  destroyers  sunk,  which  were 
valued  at  $24,720,000,  none  being  captured  or  interned.  On 
the  sea  Russia  lost  8100  in  killed  and  wounded  to  Japan's 
3670.  The  total  cost  of  war  is  figured  at  $2,000,000,000,  of 
which  Russia  spent  $1,200,000,000,  borrowing  $870,000,000,  and 
Japan  spent  $800,000,000,  borrowing  $050,000,000. 


March 

I    9. 

10. 

16. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

May  27, 
June 

,28. 
2. 

16. 

18. 

July 

8. 
18. 

Aug. 

9. 
29. 

S2S  THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

George  Kennan's  articles  in  "  The  Outlook  **  are  superior. 
Of  the  books  which  have  been  issued,  the  best  are  "  With  Kuroki 
in  Manchuria,"  by  Frederick  Palmer,  and  "  From  Tokyo  through 
Manchuria  with  the  Japanese,"  by  Major  Louis  L.  Seaman. 
A  very  thorough,  scholarly,  and  quite  ini partial  presentation  of 
the  causes  and  issues  of  the  war  is  found  in  "  The  Russo- 
Japanese  Conflict"  (Asakawa),  from  which  one  can  understand 
completely  the  situation  in  the  Far  East.  "  The  White  Peril 
in  the  Far  East  "  (Gulick)  is  also  valuable  in  this  connection  ; 
and  "The  Awakening  of  Japan"  (Okakura)  throws  light  on 
Japan's  aims  and  ideals.  "As  the  Hague  Ordains"  (Miss 
Scidmore)  throws  a  great  deal  of  light  upon  the  ideas  of  many 
of  the  chief  actors  in  the  bloody  drama.  "Human  Bullets" 
(Sakurai)  relates  most  simply  but  vividly  the  experiences  of  a 
Japanese  oflBcer,  especially  at  the  terrible  siege  of  Port  Arthur. 
"The  Tragedy  of  Russia"  (McCormick)  is  most  valuable. 


\ 


GREATER  JAPAN 


II.   I.   M.    THE    EMrEROIl 


GREATER  JAPAN 

THE  Treaty  of  Portsmouth,  which  closed  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  made  Japan  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  the  world ;  therefore,  this  chapter  is  entitled 
"Greater  Japan.'*  This  is  not  so  much  because  Japan 
became  larger,  although  she  added  half  of  Sakhalin,  ob- 
tained Russia's  lease  of  part  of  Manchuria,  and  has  annexed 
Korea,  but  it  is  because  she  has  become  truly  greater  in 
many  senses  of  the  word.  This  will  appear  more  evident 
as  one  reads  carefully  the  following  record  of  the  princi- 
pal events  of  the  past  seven  years  (1905-1912). 

It  is,  perhaps,  not  strange  that  the  Japanese  nation 
was,  on  the  whole,  disappointed  with  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Portsmouth.  They  had  borne  heavy  financial 
burdens,  and  had  confidently  anticipated  at  least  a  partial 
compensation  in  the  shape  of  an  indemnity  and  the  re- 
acquisition  of  Sakhalin,  of  which  they  considered  them- 
selves cheated  by  Russia  in  1875.  To  get  only  half  of 
Sakhalin  was  not  so  much  of  a  loss,  because  it  was  the  bet- 
ter half ;  but  to  get  not  a  single  sen  of  indemnity  was  the 
bitterest  kind  of  a  pill,  without  even  a  coat  of  sugar. 
And,  although  most  of  the  Japanese  people,  as  is  usual, 
quickly  swallowed  their  disappointment,  it  is  not  strange 
that  agitators  utilized  the  occasion  to  stir  up  the  rowdy 
element  to  break  out  in  riots  in  Tokyo  early  in  September, 
1905.  And,  after  the  destruction  of  considerable  prop- 
erty, the  city  was  placed  under  martial  law  until  the  ex- 
citement subsided. 


332   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

The  wisdom  of  the  Japanese  envoys  in  bringing  the 
war  to  a  close,  even  on  unpopular  terms,  was  fully  justi- 
fied when  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  northern  sec- 
tion of  the  main  island,  in  the  region  about  Sendai,  was 
threatened  with  a  famine,  due  to  the  partial  or  entire  fail- 
ure of  crops.  But  the  energy  which  had  been  spent  on 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  was  at  once  transferred  to  the 
task  of  relieving  the  sufifering.  To  the  appeals  for  assist- 
ance a  hearty  response  was  made,  not  only  by  Japanese 
and  foreigners  in  Japan,  but  also  by  other  peoples,  East 
and  West. 

Another  compensation  for  the  unpopular  peace  was 
found  in  September,  1905,  when  it  became  known  that, 
in  August,  even  before  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth  had  been 
signed,  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  had  been  renewed 
for  a  term  of  ten  years. 

Therefore,  by  the  beginning  of  November,  the  feeling 
of  disappointment  had  so  far  subsided  that  the  Emperor's 
birthday  (November  3)  was  celebrated  in  Tokyo  with  un- 
usual eclat  by  a  grand  triumphal  military  review,  followed 
later  by  a  grand  triumphal  naval  review  at  Yokosuka. 

The  Katsura  Ministry,  however,  being  held  responsible 
for  the  unpopular  terms  of  peace,  resigned  in  December,^ 
and  was  succeeded  in  January,  1906,  by  a  Cabinet  under 
Marquis  Saionji,  the  leader  of  the  Seiyukwai,  without 
special  change  of  policy. 

In  the  meantime,  in  accordance  with  a  Convention  be- 
tween Japan  and  Korea,  the  former  established  in  the  lat- 
ter a  Residency-General  in  Seoul,  with  Residencies  in 
several  parts  of  the  country.  And  to  the  most  important 
post  of  Resident-General  the  Emperor  of  Japan  ap- 
pointed [then]  Marquis  I  to.     And  by  this  Convention  the 

1  It  had  established  a  record  by  holding  oflSce  for  four  and  one- 
half  years,  the  longest  period  of  any  Ministry  since  the  establish- 
ment of  constitutional  government. 


MAKQUIS   SAIONJI 


'       '     f     ,'.'•<:       ' 


GREATER  JAPAN  333 

control  of  Korea's  foreign  affairs  passed  to  the  Residency- 
General. 

The  Twenty-second  Session  of  the  Imperial  Diet  (De- 
cember 28,  1905-March  27,  1906)  is  worthy  of  special 
notice  because  it  passed,  with  slight  amendments,  the 
government  bill  for  the  nationalization  of  the  railways  of 
the  Empire.  The  original  bill  contemplated  the  purchase  by 
the  government  of  all  the  railroads  :  but  the  Diet  amended 
the  bill,  while  accepting  the  principle,  by  exempting  a  few 
small  railways  of  no  great  strategic  importance,  and  ap- 
plying the  principle  to  seventeen  large  and  important  lines. 
In  the  same  year,  the  railways  in  Korea  passed  under  the 
management  of  the  Japanese  Government. 

Another  event  worthy  of  notice  is  the  organization  in 
1906  of  the  Japan  Peace  Society,  composed  of  men  and 
women  of  several  nationalities  and  of  many  shades  of  po- 
litical and  religious  belief.  And  in  1909  this  society  was 
honored  and  strengthened  by  Count  Okuma's  acceptance 
of  the  position  of  President. 

The  year  1907  was  marked  by  the  negotiation  of  sev- 
eral "Agreements"  of  prime  importance  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  peace  in  the  Far  East.  In  the  first  place,  the 
Russo-Japanese  Convention  (July)  "  consolidating  peace 
and  good  neighborly  relations,"  proved  that  the  Portsmouth 
Treaty  was  not  merely  a  sort  of  truce  but  a  desire  to  "pre- 
serve the  peace  permanently."  The  Franco- Japanese 
Agreement  (June)  evinced  the  strong  "  desire  to  strengthen 
the  relations  of  amity  existing  between  "  the  two  peoples. 
A  new  Japan-Korea  Agreement  (July)  gave  Japan  the 
control  of  the  internal  administrative  affairs  of  Korea  and 
especially  established  a  "clear  differentiation"  of  the 
Executive  and  Judicial  departments  of  State.  This  sepa- 
ration of  the  judiciary  from  executive  and  official  inter- 
ference was  further  emphasized  by  the  appointment  of  an 
earnest  Japanese  Christian,  Judge  Watanabe,  as  Chief 


334   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  Korea.  Meantime,  the 
Emperor,  whose  corrupt  rule  had  brought  his  country  to 
its  deplorable  condition,  abdicated,  and  his  son  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  while  the  new  Crown  Prince  went  over  to 
Japan  to  be  educated  and  was  granted  a  suitable  domicile  in 
Tokyo.  Moreover,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Japan  made  a  visit 
to  Korea — the  first  instance  of  a  Japanese  Crown  Prince 
leaving  his  native  land  —  and  succeeded  in  conquering 
prejudices  and  winning  hearts. 

The  year  1907  was  also  memorable  for  some  important 
events  in  the  Christian  movement  in  Japan.  In  April,  the 
World's  Student  Christian  Federation,  composed  of  625 
delegates  from  25  nations,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  con- 
vened in  Tokyo,  and,  in  an  inspiring  session  of  several 
days,  exemplified  the  practical  application  of  their  motto, 
ut  omnes  unum  sint. 

The  late  General  Booth,  of  the  Salvation  Army,  made 
a  visit  to  Japan  (April  16-May  24),  received  a  most  cor- 
dial welcome,  was  honored  by  an  audience  with  the  Em- 
peror, and  held  a  remarkable  series  of  meetings  in  the 
principal  cities. 

The  National  Sunday-school  Association,  which  was  or- 
ganized in  May,  was  another  application  of  the  principle 
of  Christian  unity.  And  the  First  Conference  of  the 
(union)  Methodist  Church  of  Japan,  meeting  in  Tokyo 
(May  22-June  7),  on  June  1,  elected  as  its  first  bishop 
Rev.  Y.  Honda,  D.D.,  the  first  native  to  be  elected  to  such 
an  important  ecclesiastical  position  in  the  Far  East 

The  short  stop-over  made  in  Japan  by  Hon.  William  H. 
Taft,  then  United  States  Secretary  of  War,  on  his  way  to 
Manila,  was  one  which  truly  warranted  his  additional  title 
of  "  Secretary  of  Peace."  In  a  speech  on  October  1,  at  a 
banquet  given  in  his  honor  in  Tokyo,  he  made  a  profound 
impression  when  he  said  :  '*  War  between  Japan  and  the 
United  States  would  be  a  crime  against  modern  civiliza- 


GREATER  JAPAN  335 

tion/*  And  116  representative  missionaries,  residing  in 
all  sections  of  Japan,  and  representing  20  American 
Christian  organizations,  besides  Independents,  signed  a 
series  of  resolutions  expressing  their  hope  "  that  local  and 
spasmodic  misunderstandings  may  not  be  allowed  to  affect 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  natural  and  historic  friendship 
of  the  two  neighbors  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Pacific," 
and  that  all  "  efforts  to  maintain  peace  and  good- will  may 
be  supported  by  all  patriotic  citizens  and  may  be  crowned 
with  success." 

And,  although  the  immigration  question  at  one  time 
was  a  fruitful  source  of  agitation,  yet  the  authorities  in 
Japan,  Canada,  and  the  United  States  dealt  with  the  ques- 
tion in  a  considerate  and  statesmanlike  manner  and  came 
to  a  satisfactory  settlement. 

The  friendly  relations  between  Japan  and  the  United 
States  were  further  consolidated,  on  May  5,  1908,  by  an 
Arbitration  Treaty,  the  first  which  Japan  had  ever  nego- 
tiated. This  was  only  one  more  strong  evidence  that  the 
two  countries  do  not  wish  to  find  a  casus  belli. 

In  October  of  the  same  year  came  the  first  visit  of  a 
company  of  American  business  men  to  Japan  and  the  visit 
of  the  American  fleet,  both  of  which  received  a  most  cor- 
dial welcome.  The  business  men  were  given  every  oppor- 
tunity to  ascertain  industrial  conditions  in  Japan,  and 
acknowledged  that  the  visit  was  an  eye-opener.  In  wel- 
coming the  fleet,  the  "  Kokumin  Shimbun"  said,  among 
other  good  things,  ' '  The  sixteen  battleships,  representa- 
tive of  the  noble  traditions  of  American  justice,  come  to 
our  shores  as  heralds  of  peace."  And,  most  significantly, 
it  added  that  "  the  time  was  ripe  for  an  Americo- Japanese 
camaraderie,  which  is  already  so  strong  as  to  be  tanta- 
mount to  an  unwritten  alliance."  This  utterance  was 
significant  because  it  was  followed  so  closely  by  the 
Americo-Japanese  Entente,  dated  November  30,   1908. 


336   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

This  is  a  document  ^  of  immense  importance,  which  must 
stand  as  a  perpetual  reminder  that  a  war  between  Japan 
and  the  United  States  would  be  a  crime. 

In  July,  1908,  the  Saionji  Ministry  resigned,  ostensibly 
on  account  of  the  Premier's  illness,  and  Marquis  Katsura 
was  again  called  upon  to  form  a  Cabinet. 

Inasmuch  as  the  great  prosperity  which  immediately 
followed  the  Russo-Japanese  War  had  led  to  some  ex- 
travagance and  reckless  speculation,  the  Emperor  felt  im- 
pelled to  issue  in  October,  1908,  an  edict  of  warning  to 
the  people. 

One  more  important  event  of  this  year  should  be  chroni- 
cled —  the  completion  of  the  railway  which  runs  the  length 
of  the  island  of  Formosa.  This  is  facilitating  greatly 
the  development  of  the  resources  of  that  "  Beautiful  Isle." 

In  June,  1909,  Prince  Ito  resigned  his  position  as  Resi- 
dent-General in  Korea,  and  was  succeeded  by  Viscount 
Sone,  who  had  been  Vice-Resident- General.  In  July,  the 
administration  of  justice  and  prisons  was  transferred  to  the 
Resident-General.  In  October,  Prince  Ito  was  assassinated 
at  Harbin  by  a  Korean  fanatic;  and,  in  December,  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  at  Seoul  upon  the  life  of 
the  Korean  Prime  Minister  by  another  fanatic.  Prince 
Ito,  as  the  greatest  statesman  of  Modern  Japan,  was  es- 
pecially honored  with  a  most  elaborate  state  funeral. 

The  year  1909  was  also  marked  by  a  Semi-Centennial 
Conference,  held  in  Tokyo,  October  5-10,  to  commemorate 
the  beginning  of  Christian  missions  in  New  Japan.  It 
was  "  the  first  national  conference  in  which  the  Japanese 
and  missionaries  cooperated  on  an  equal  footing " ;  it 
marked  "the  emergence  of  the  Japanese  Church  from  in- 
fancy to  youth;  from  the  stigma  of  being  an  alien  parasite 
to  the  acknowledged  status  of  an  indigenous  institution  "  ; 

1  For  text,  see  end  of  Appendix. 


STATESMEN  OF  NEW   JAPAN 
MARQUIS  KATSURA   AND  PRINCE  ITG 


GREATER  JAPAN  337 

and  marked  the  waoing  of  missionary  domination  and 
the  rapid  assumption  of  control  by  Japanese  Christians. 
Thus  it  was  a  real  epoch-making  event  in  the  history  of 
the  Christian  movement  in  Japan. 

A  large  party  of  representative  Japanese  business  men 
started  in  the  fall  of  1909  for  a  trip  to  the  United  States, 
and  returned  in  the  spring  of  1910.  The  courteous  treat- 
ment and  generous  hospitality  extended  to  them  in  their 
hurried  tour  across  the  country  were  highly  appreciated. 
The  trip  afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  to  ascertain 
that  the  true  sentiments  of  the  best  Americans  are  friendly 
to  Japan. 

Viscount  Sone,  Resident-General  in  Korea,  having 
been  compelled,  on  account  of  dangerous  illness,  to 
return  to  Japan,  resigned  his  post,  and  died  Septembei 
13,  1910.  He  was  succeeded  by  General  Viscount  Ter- 
auchi.  Minister  of  War,  who  carried  through  the  plan  of 
annexation,  which  was  formally  announced  on  August  29, 
1910.  This  "passing  of  Korea"  is  a  truly  unfortunate 
but  inevitable  occurrence.  It  was  a  practical  impossibility 
for  Korea,  in  her  peculiar  geographical  position,  to  maintain 
political  independence.  The  "Poland  of  the  Far  East" 
was  destined,  not  to  partition,  but  to  absorption  by  Rus- 
sia, or  China,  or  Japan ;  and  she  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of 
the  one  best  able  to  improve  her  condition. 

The  year  1910  was  also  marked  by  the  discovery  of 
an  anarchist  plot  against  the  sacred  person  of  the  Em- 
peror. Several  were  arrested  as  conspirators,  of  whom  a 
few  were  acquitted,  a  few  were  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  terms  of  years,  but  twelve  were  condemned  to 
death  and  executed  (in  1911). 

It  was  in  July,  1911,  that  the   term  of  the  revised 

treaties  (which  had  gone  into  effect  in  1899)  expired,  and 

entirely  new  treaties  were  negotiated  with  all  the  powers. 

As  these  treaties  included  no  limitations  upon  the  com- 

22 


338    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mercial  autonomy  of  Japan,  they  marked  the  "  end  of  her 
extra-territorial  embarrassments."  And,  in  particular, 
the  new  treaty  with  the  United  States  omitted  the  objec- 
tionable provision  of  the  old  treaty  (see  Appendix),  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  it  was  permissible  for  the  United 
States  to  limit  the  immigration  of  Japanese.  This  deli- 
cate question  was  left  to  a  "gentleman's  agreement," 
whereby  the  Japanese  Government  would  exercise  the  ut- 
most care  concerning  granting  passports  to  Japanese  to 
travel  to  the  United  States. 

The  Anglo- Japanese  Alliance  was  again  revised  in  1911 
and  renewed  for  a  terai  of  ten  years.  The  most  signifi- 
cant point  in  this  revision  was  a  provision  inserted,  in 
view  of  the  probability  at  that  time  of  an  Anglo-Ameri- 
can Arbitration  Treaty,  that  nothing  should  entail  upon 
either  "  contracting  party  an  obligation  to  go  to  war  with 
the  Power  with  whom  such  treaty  of  arbitration  is  in 
force."  This  was  accomplished  before  the  death  of  Mar- 
quis Komura,  who  thus  lived  long  enough  to  see  this 
increased  influence  of  that  alliance  in  the  original  nego- 
tiation of  which  he  played  a  most  important  part. 

That  year  was  also  distinguished  by  the  generous  Im- 
perial donation  of  1,500,000  yen  to  start  a  fund  for  the 
relief  of  the  sick  poor.  This  contribution  was  supple- 
mented by  gifts  from  all  over  the  Empire,  until  the  fund 
has  reached  a  total  of  about  25,000,000  yen.  And  to  ad- 
minister properly  this  large  amount,  a  society  called  "  Sai- 
seikwai "  has  been  organized,  with  an  Imperial  Prince  as 
Honorary  President. 

The  year  1911  is  likewise  a  red-letter  year  in  the  politi- 
cal history  of  Japan,  because,  when  the  Katsura  Cabinet 
resigned,  the  duty  of  organizing  a  new  Ministry  was  be- 
stowed upon  Marquis  Saionji  (the  leader  of  the  Seiyukai), 
who  made  up  what  is  practically  a  party  administration. 

One  of  the  most  significant  events  of  the  year  1912  was 


VlS(J()l]i\  r   SONE 


GREATER  JAPAN  339 

what  is  known  as  the  *' Tri- Religion  Conference"  (in 
March).  It  was  called  by  Mr.  Tokonami,  Vice-Minister 
of  Home  Affairs,  and  consisted  of  about  fifty  Shinto, 
Buddhist,  and  Christian  representatives.  It  was  no  at- 
tempt to  amalgamate  the  three  faiths;  it  was  merely  a 
means  of  bringing  those  representatives  together  for  bet- 
ter acquaintance  with  each  other,  for  more  earnest  work 
in  behalf  of  social  and  moral  amelioration,  and  for  greater 
emphasis  upon  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  nation.  The 
most  significant  point,  however,  was  the  fact  that  the  con- 
ference was  practically  an  official  recognition  of  Christi- 
anity on  the  same  footing  with  Shinto  and  Buddhism. 

As  the  trial  of  a  large  number  of  Korean  Christians  on  a 
charge  of  conspiring  to  assassinate  Governor-General  Ter- 
auchi  is  still  sub  judice,  it  is  proper  at  present  merely  to 
mention  the  fact.  Jt  is,  however,  only  right  to  add,  that 
much  of  the  criticism  of  the  case  arises  from  the  fact  that 
Japanese  judicial  processes  follow  European  rather  than 
American  models  and  are  not  in  accord  with  Anglo-Saxon 
ideas  of  justice. 

The  most  prominent  events  of  1912  were,  of  course,  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Mutsuhito,  the  accession  of  the 
Crown  Prince  Yoshihito,  and  the  close  of  the  marvellous 
Meiji  Era  with  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  called  Taisho 
(Great  Righteousness).  The  limits  of  space  forbid  more 
than  the  mention  of  the  wonderful  scenes,  especially  in 
front  of  the  Palace,  when  the  prayers  of  all  classes  of  peo- 
ple, of  all  religious  beliefs  and  of  no  belief,  were  mingled 
together  during  the  days  just  preceding  July  30.  Mutsu- 
hito and  Meiji :  these  two  names  are  practically  synchro- 
nous and  synonymous ;  the  reign  of  Mutsuhito  was  the 
Enlightened  Rule  of  Meiji. ^  It  was,  therefore,  most  ap- 
propriate that  the  deceased  Emperor  was  given  the  posthu- 

1  The  word  "  Meiji "  means  "  Enlightened  Rule." 


340    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mous  title  of  Meiji  Tenno.  And  the  Imperial  funeral  was 
a  most  elaborate  affair,  an  interesting  combination  of  the 
Old  and  the  New,  in  which  the  former  predominated ;  for 
it  was  a  Shinto  ceremony  with  some  modern  Occidental  at- 
tachments. And  the  tragic  suicide  of  General  Count  Nogi 
and  the  Countess  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  Sep- 
tember 13,  just  as  the  Imperial  cortege  was  leaving  the  Pal- 
ace, was  in  accordance  with  the  old  idea  of  following 
one's  master  in  death.  But,  while  it  was  not  in  accord 
with  Christian  ideas  of  life  and  duty,  my  tongue  of  criti- 
cism is  silenced. 

A  governmental  crisis  led  to  the  resignation  of  Premier 
Saionji  and  his  cabinet  in  December,  and  Prince  Katsura 
for  the  third  time  was  called  to  the  place.  Popular  oppo- 
sition to  an  increase  of  the  army  and  military  expenses, 
demand  for  reduction  of  taxes,  belief  that  Premier  Katsura 
was  in  sympathy  with  the  military  party,  that  he  might 
influence  the  Emperor,  and  that  democratic  tendencies 
were  likely  to  be  checked,  led  to  an  uprising  in  opposition 
to  him  and  his  ministry.  February  5,  1913,  a  resolution 
was  adopted  in  Parliament  expressing  lack  of  confidence. 
Rioting  in  T5ky5  and  elsewhere  was  followed  by  the 
resignation  of  Prince  Katsura  and  his  cabinet  February  11, 
and  on  the  12th,  by  the  direction  of  the  Emperor,  Count 
Yamamoto  formed  a  new  ministry. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  some  matters  which  do  not  fit 
well  into  these  chronological  annals.  The  fact  that  Japa- 
nese educational  authorities  are  obtaining  Christian  young 
men  as  English  teachers  through  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  is  interesting.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  the  number  of  Chinese  students  resorting  to  Japan 
for  education  increased  rapidly,  until  it  was  estimated  at 
15,000  to  20,000.  But,  as  the  great  mass  of  these  were 
mere  adventurers,  there  came  a  natural  but  heavy  reduc- 
tion, BO  that  only  about  5,000  remained  by  1910.  And, 
in  that  year,   almost  all  of  these  returned  to  China  to 


GREATER  JAPAN  341 

participate  in  the  Revolution.  There  are  also  several 
hundred  Korean  students,  whose  numbers  will  probably 
increase,  besides  many  Indians  and  a  few  Siamese  and 
Philippinos.  A^nd  these  Oriental  students  return  home 
imbued  with  progressive  ideas. 

This  is  a  summary  of  the  principal  events  which  have 
made  a  ''  Greater  Japan."  Dai  Nippon  (Great  Japan)  has 
been  enlarged  in  seven  years  by  the  acquisition  of  consid- 
erable territory.  She  is  no  longer  merely  insular,  but 
continental.  She  is  greater  in  her  resources  and  in  her 
potentialities.  She  has  increased  her  wealth  and  her  pro- 
ductive capacity ;  she  has  enlarged  her  industrial  enter- 
prise ;  she  has  expanded  her  trade  and  commerce.  She 
has  a  bigger  army  and  navy  to  protect  herself  from  ag- 
gression. Her  educational  facilities  are  greater,  and  her 
moral  and  spiritual  development  has  been  enhanced 
through  Christianity.  Japan  enjoys  greater  power  and 
influence  in  the  world's  councils,  and  she  is  also  weighted 
with  much  greater  responsibilities.  New  Japan,  in  1913 
sixty  years  old,  is  a  truly  "Greater  Japan." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

"Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation  "  (7th  edition)  (Griffis)  ;  "Korea 
and  her  Neighbors  "(Mrs.  Bird-Bishop) ;  "  Korean  Sketches  "  and 
«  Korea  in  Transition  "  (Gale) ;  "  The  Passing  of  Korea  "  (Hul- 
bert)  ;  "  The  Tragedy  of  Korea"  (McKenzie);  "With  Marquis 
Ito  in  Korea  "  (Ladd)  ;  "China  and  the  Far  East "  (Clark  Uni- 
versity Lectures) ;  "  American  Japanese  Relatiops  '*  (Kawa- 
kami) ;  "  The  Japanese  Nation  "  (Nitobe). 


APPENDIX 


GENERAL   VISCOUNT  TERAUCIII 


APPENDIX 

Provinces  and  Prefectures 

THE  following  list  gives  in  detail  the  divisions 
of  Japan  into  Provinces  (Kwii),  according  to 
*' Circuits":  — 

Go-Kinai  (Five  Home  Provinces).  Yamashiro,  Yamato, 
Kawachi,  Izumi  (or  Senshiu),  Settsu  (or  Sesshiu). 

Tokaidd  (Eastern  Sea  Eoad).  Iga,  Ise,  Shima,  Owari, 
Mikawa,  Totomi,  Suruga,  Kai,  Izu,  Sagami,  Musashi, 
Awa  (or  Boshiu),  Kazusa,  Shimosa,  Hitachi. 

Tosando  (Eastern  Mountain  Road).  Omi,  Mino,  Hida, 
Shinano  (or  Shinshiu),  Kozuke  (or  Joshiu),  Shimozuke, 
Iwaki,  Iwashiro,  Rikuzen,  Rikuchu,  Mutsu,  Uzen, 
Ugo. 

Hokurikudo    (North    Land   Road).     Wakasa,   Echizen, 

Kaga,  Noto,  Etchu,  Echigo,  Sado  Island. 
Sa7iindd    (Mountain     Shade    Road).     Tamba,     Tango, 
Tajima,  Inaba,  Hoki,  Izumo,  Iwami,  Oki  Islands. 

Sanyodo  (Mountain  Sunlight  Road).  Harima  (or  Ban- 
shiu),  Mimasaka,  Bizen,  Bitchti,  Bingo,  Aki,  Suwo, 
Nagata   (or  Choshiu). 

Nankaido  (Southern  Sea  Road).  Kii  (or  Kishiu),  Awaji 
Island,  Awa,  Sanuki,  lyo,  Tosa  (or  Toshiu),  of  which 
the  last  four  are  in  the  island  of  Shikoku. 

Saikaido  (Western  Sea  Road).  Chikuzen,  Chikugo, 
Buzen,  Bungo,  Hizen,  Higo,  Hyuga,  Osumi,  Satsuma 
(or  Sasshiu),  Iki  Island,  Tsushima  Island,  of  which 
all  except  the  last  two  are  on  the  island  of  Kyushiu. 


346   A  HANDBOOK  01'  MODERN  JAPAN 


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APPENDIX  347 

Hokhaido  (Northern  Sea  Road).  Oshima,  Shiribeshi, 
Iburi,  Ishikari,  Hitaka,  Tokachi,  Teshiwo,  Kushiro, 
Nemuro,  Kitami  (all  on  the  island  of  Yezo),  and  Chi- 
shima,  or  the  Kurile  Islands. 

Byukyu  (Loo  Choo)  Islands.  This  group  constituted 
one,  the  85th,  Kuni, 

The  following  is  the  list  of  Japanese  Prefectures  {Ken 
and  Fu) :  — 

The  Fu  number  three  :  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and  Osaka. 

The  Ken  number  forty-three :  Kanagawa,  Saitama, 
Chiba,  Ibaraki,  Tochigi,  Gumma,  Nagano,  Yamanashi, 
Shizuoka,  Aichi,  Miye,  Gifu,  Shiga,  Fukui,  Ishikawa, 
Toyama,  Niigata,  Fukushima,  Miyagi,  Yamagata, 
Akita,  Iwate,  Aomori,  Nara,  Wakayama,  Hyogo, 
Okayama,  Hiroshima,  Yamaguchi,  Shimane,  Tottori, 
Tokushima,  Kagawa,  Ehime,  Kochi,  Nagasaki,  Saga, 
Fukuoka,  Kumamoto,  Oita,  Miyazaki,  Kagoshima,  and 
Okinawa  (Eyukyu  Islands). 

Hokkaido  and  Formosa  are  at  present  administered  as 
**  territories ''  by  the  Imperial  Government,  although 
the  former  has  recently  been  granted  a  small  measure  of 
local  self-government. 

Tables  of  Japanese  Money,  Weight,  and 
Measure  ^ 

Length  (Sashi).     Japanese  Weights  and  Measures. 

As  the  use  of  the  Japanese  weights  and  measures  is 
becoming  more  and  more  frequent  in  reports  and  books 
from  the  Far  East,  the  following  tables  will  be  found 
useful  to  all  persons  who  wish  to  ascertain  the  equiva- 
lents of  the  Japanese  terms  in  similar  terms  in  use  in 
the  United  States  and  in  England : — 

^  From  "  Japan  and  America." 


348        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


LONG  MEASURE  (SASHI) 

1  Md  (0.0001  Shahu) 0.000099  foot. 

1  Rin  (10  M6) 0.00099  foot. 

15tt(10i2m) 1.4317  lines. 

1  Sun  (10  5m) 1.1931  inches. 

1  Shaku  (10  Sun) 11.9305  inches. 

1  Ken  (6  Shahu) 1.9884  j-ards. 

1  Jd  (10  Shaku) 3.3U0  'yards. 

1  Cho  (60  Ken) 5.4229  chains  (1-15  m.). 

1  Ri  (36  Chd) 2.4403  miles  (2i  m.). 

1  Kai-Ri  (Marine  Ri) 1.1507  miles. 

DRY  GOODS  MEASURE  {KUJIRA-JAKU) 

1  Sun  (0.1  Shaku) 1.4913  inches. 

1  Shaku  (10  Sun) 14.9130  inches. 

1  Tan (about)  11  yards. 

1  HiH (about)  22  yards. 

WEIGHT  {HAKARI) 

1  3fd 0.000008  pound  (avoirdupois). 

1  Rin  (10  M6) 0.000083  pound  " 

1  Fun  (10  Rin) 5.7972  grains  " 

1  Momme  (10  Fun) 2.12  draras  " 

1  Kin  (160  Momme) 1.3251  pounds  " 

1  Kwan  (1,000  Momme) 8.2817  pounds  " 

CAPACITY  (MASU) 

1  Shaku  (10  Sai) 0.00397  gallon. 

1G5(1Q  Shaku) 1.2706  gills;  0.0199  peck. 

1  Sh6  (10  G6)       1.5881  quarts;  0.1985  peck. 

1  To  (10  Shd) 3.9703  gallons;  1.9851  pecks. 

1  Koku  (10  To) 39.7033  gallons ;  4.9629  bushels. 

SUPERFICIAL  MEASURE  (TANBETSU) 

1  Square  Shaku about  1  square  foot. 

1  Tmbo  (36  Square  Shaku) 3.9538  square  yards. 

1  Se  (30  Tsubo) about  119  square  yards. 

\Tan(\0  Se) 0.2451  acre. 

lCh6(\0Tan) 2.4507  acres. 

1  Square  Ki 5.9552  square  miles. 

MONEY 

1  yen ^0.4935 

1  5«n one-half  cent. 


APPENDIX  849 

Moneyy  Weight,  and  Measure  of  Various   Countries 
in  Terms   of  those   of  Japanese 

MONEY 

English  pound  (20  shillings) 9.763    yen. 

Shilling  (12  pennies) 0.4881 

Penny  (4  farthings) 0.0407 

Hong  Kong  dollar 0.949 

American  dollar  (100  cents) 2.006 

Cent 0.02 

German  mark 0.478 

French  franc 0.387 

Chinese  tael 1.298 

Manila  dollar 0  985 

Mexican  dollar 0.965 

ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  LENGTH 

Mile  (1,760  yards) U  cU  amA  i%  Teen. 

Yard  (3  feet) 3  shaku. 

Foot  (12  inches) 1  shaku. 

Inch 8  Jm  and  4  rin. 

GERMAN,  FRENCH,  AUSTRIAN,  AND  ITALIAN  LENGTH 

Metre 3  shaku  and  3  sun. 

Centimetre  (1-100  metre) 3  6m  and  3  nn. 

Millimetre  (1-1000  metre) •     .     .    3  Wn  and  3  mo. 

ENGLISH  CAPACITY 

Gallon  (liquid) 2  sh6,  5  gd,  and  2  shaku. 

Bushel  (wheat) 2  to  and  1  go. 

AMERICAN  CAPACITY 

Gallon  (liquid) 2  shd  and  1  gd. 

Bushel  (wheat) 1  <o,  9  shd,  and  5  gd. 

Weight 

ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  (HEAVYWEIGHTS) 

Ton  (20  hundredweight,  or  2,240  pounds)     about  270  kwan  and  946  momme. 

Short  ton  (2,000  pounds) 241  kwan  and  916  momme. 

Hundredweight  (112  pounds) 13  kwan  and  547  momme. 

Pound  (16  ounces) 121  momme. 

Ounce about  8  momme. 


350   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


LIGHT  WEIGHT 

Pound 99  momme  and  5  bu. 

Ounce 8  vwmnie  and  3  bu. 

Grain 1  rin  and  7  md. 

Area 

AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH 
Acre 0 itan  and  24  ho. 

Arable  Land  in  Japan ^ 

The  **Nichi  Nichi  Shimbun"  argues  that  the  real 
question  for  the  Japanese  to  consider  is  development  of 
agriculture,  not  a  paltry  lightening  of  the  fiscal  burden 
now  imposed  on  agriculturists.  When  the  area  of  cul- 
tivated land  in  the  various  countries  of  the  world  is 
compared  with  the  total  areas  of  those  countries,  start- 
ling figures  result. 

Ratio  of  Area  of  Cultivated  Land  to  Total  Area  of 
Country 

Austria 36.7 

Spain 36.7 

Holland 27.3 

England 27.9 

Portugal 24.9 

European  Russia  .     .     .  16.4 

Japan 13.8 

Japanese  habitually  plead  that  their  extraordinarily  low 
place  on  this  list  is  the  result,  not  of  want  of  industry, 
but  of  natural  obstacles,  much  of  the  surface  of  their 
islands  consisting  of  mountains  and  hills  which  cannot 
be  made  arable.  The  "  Nichi  Nichi "  alleges  that  such 
an  excuse  is  merely  partial,  and  that  a  little  energy  and 
resolution  would  soon  change  the  situation.  At  any 
rate,  the  opposition  offered  by  politicians  to  the  present 
1  From  the  "  Japan  MaiL" 


Belgium 

.     .     .    53.9 

Prussia   .     . 

.     .     .     50.3 

France    .     . 

.     .     .     .    50.2 

Germany     . 

.     .     .     43.4 

Denmark 

.     .     .     42.5 

Italy  .     .    . 

.     .     .     39.9 

Hungary     . 

.     .     .    37.7 

APPENDIX  351 

land  tax  is  not  in  the  genuine  interests  of  agriculture, 
but  in  the  interests  of  political  popularity. 


Mr.  Megata,  an  official  of  the  Finance  Department 
and  an  expert  statistician,  has  figured  out  that  in  1901 
more  than  15,000,000  acres  were  in  cultivation. 


The  actual  yield  of  rice  for  ten  years  (1900-1909)  is 
indicated  in  the  following  table :  — 

KOKU. 

1900 41,466,422 

1901 46,914,434 

1902 36,932,266 

1903 46,473,298 

1904 51,430,321 

1905 38,172,560 

1906 46,302,530 

1907 49,052,065 

1908 51,932,893 

1909 52,437,662 

Average 46,114,451 

FRuiT-GROwiNa  IN  Japan  ^ 
Fruits  originally  cultivated,  and  probably  native  in 
Japan,  include  the  orange,  pear,  peach,  sour  plum, 
almond,  grape,  persimmon,  loquat,  pomegranate,  ginko 
or  salisburia,  and  fig.  The  mikan,  or  Japanese  sweet 
orange,  is  smaller,  sweeter,  and  less  juicy  than  the 
oranges  raised  in  America,  and  the  thin  membrane  sepa- 
rating the  sections  of  the  fruit  is  tougher ;  it  has  a  very 
pleasant  flavor,  and  is  much  used  for  food  by  both  natives 
and  foreigners.  It  is  cultivated  all  through  the  warmer 
regions  of  Japan,  and  is  the  most  plentiful  of  the  fruits 
raised  there,  being  found  in  the  markets  from  early 
autumn  until  late  the  following  spring.  The  persimmon 
1  From  a  Report  by  U.  S.  Consul-General  Bellows,  Yokohama. 


352 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


comes  next  to  the  orange  in  the  number  produced,  and 
is  a  favorite  with  the  natives,  but  its  season  is  com- 
paratively short.  It  closely  resembles  the  persimmon 
of  America's  Southern  States.  The  sour  plum  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  and  yields  a  good  crop,  but  the  other 
fruits  named  above,  though  more  or  less  widely  grown, 
are  produced  in  much  smaller  quantities  —  the  fig  being 
most  abundant  and  most  valued  of  the  less  important 
fruits.  The  government  has  introduced  peaches,  pears, 
and  grapes  from  Europe  and  America,  and  has  found 
the  soil  and  climate  well  adapted  to  their  production,  so 
that  these  are  now  cultivated  in  addition  to  the  native 
varieties  of  the  same  fruits.  Of  the  fruits  wholly  un- 
known in  Japan  until  introduced  from  abroad,  the 
apple  has  proved  most  successful,  and  it  has  become  a 
chief  product  of  some  districts  in  the  Hokkaido,  or 
northern  island.  The  apples  are  of  fine  appearance 
and  excellent  flavor,  and  the  trees  yield  a  profit  very 
encouraging  to  the  cultivator,  so  that  the  area  of  their 
production  is  being  increased.  The  natives  eat  fruit 
chiefly  fresh,  and  its  use  as  a  table  diet  is  not  general, 
although  increasing.  The  processes  of  drying  and  can- 
ning fruits  are  beginning  to  come  into  use,  but  only  as 
a  means  of  preserving  the  fruit  for  home  consumption, 
not  for  export. 

Factories  in  Japan  ^ 


No.  OF 
Factoribs. 

AOORBGATB 
HOBSI  POWBB. 

No.  OF  Factoribs 
WITHOUT  Motor 

POWBR. 

1895 

2,758 

61,252 

4,396 

1896 

3,037 

64,429 

4,603 

1897 

2,910 

63,434 

4,377 

1898 

2,964 

79,016 

4,131 

1899 

2,305 

76,885 

4,394 

1900 

2,388 

95,3!)2 

4,896 

1909 

6,723 

554,571 

8,703 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Times." 


APPENDIX 


353 


Factories  with  Motor  Power 


Silk  reeling 

Cotton  and  silk  spinning 
Ships,  machines,  etc. .    .    . 

Weaving 

Cement 

Printing 

Paper-mills 


No.  OF 
Factoeibs. 


1,046 
1,722 

117 
112 

155 
198 

25 
66 

251 
37 

30 
15 

11 
18 


HOBSB  POWKB. 


6,631 

12,523 
20,463 

2,577 
4,190 

3,005 
2,596 

1,099 
1,825 

246 
531 

3,097 
3,398 


No.  or 
Opbbativbs. 


112,887  1 
102,071 

56,417 
80,107 

16,654 
18,131 

7,924 
9,588 

2,712 
3,554 

3,233 
5,224 

1,761 
2,909 


Factories  without  Motor  Poiver 


No.  OP  OPKBATrvaa. 


Silk  reeling 

Cotton  and  silk  spinning 
Ships,  machines,  etc. 

Weaving 

Cement 

Printing 


17,614 
14,077 


542 

4,512 
3,195 

28,900 
34,965 

5,099 
2,870 

2,784 
2,617 


1  The  first  figures  in  each  group  represent  the  end  of  1896,  and 
the  second  figures  the  end  of  1900. 

The  grand  total  of  operatives  had  increased  in  1909  to  692,221  — 
240,864  males  and  451,357  females. 

23 


354 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Clearing-houses  of  Japan 

The   following  table  shows  the  developmeut  of  the 
clearing-house  business  in  the  two  largest  centres :  — 


Total  of  Checks  and  Bills  Cleabbd. 

OF 

Tokyo 

Osaka. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1895 

131,600,000 

34,500,000 

1896 

184,800,000 

65,700,000 

1897 

250,300,000 

72,200,000 

1898 

383,400,000 

97,300,000 

1899 

433,800,000 

161,600,000 

1900 

675,400,000 

255,500,000 

1901 

565,000,000 

263,700,000 

1902 

614,700,000 

298,700,000 

1903 

756,100,000 

395,900,000 

1908  (whole 

year) 

2,962,973,000 

1,418,941,000 

1910  (whole 

year) 

3,841,380,000 

2,028,605,000 

Ship-Building  in  Japan  ^ 

Recent  orders  which  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  Nagasaki  Dockyard  and  Engine  Works  and  the 
Kawasaki  Dockyard  Company,  Limited,  by  the  Nippon 
Yusen  Kaisha  and  the  Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha,  serve  to 
remind  the  resident  of  the  rapid  development  of  the 
ship-building  industry  in  this  country,  while  at  the  same 
time  affording  evidence  of  the  growth  of  the  country's 
mercantile  marine.  The  order  placed  with  the  first- 
named  yard  is  for  four  large  steamers  of  6,000,  6,400, 
2,500,  and  1,900  tons,  respectively,  the  largest  vessels 
being  intended  for  the  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company^s 
European  and  Australian  lines.  Nor  is  the  Osaka 
Shosen  Kaisha  in  a  different  position.  This  enterpris- 
ing company  also  has  found  it  necessary  to  order  new 
vessels,  and  has  found  it  economical  to  order  them  in 

1  From  a  Report  by  U.  S.  Consul  Lyon,  K5be. 


APPEISTDIX  355 

Japan  instead  of  from  abroad.  The  fact  is  worthy  of 
note,  for  it  is  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  country 
that  orders  for  eight  ocean-going  steamers  have  been  in 
hand  at  one  time.  This  may,  we  trust,  be  held  to 
indicate  that  the  shipping  and  ship-building  industries 
are  in  a  healthy  and  prosperous  state. 

The  contrast  between  the  condition  of  the  local  ship- 
building trade  now  and  that  of  a  few  years  back  is  a 
striking  one.  Perhaps  the  first  real  impetus  given  to 
I^rivate  ship-building  here  was  due  to  the  enterprise  of 
the  late  Mr.  E.  C.  Kirby,  at  whose  yard  at  Onohama  — 
the  plant  of  which  was  subsequently  removed  to  Kure 
—  one  large  cruiser  and  several  smaller  gunboats  and 
steamers  were  successfully  launched.  Since  then,  the 
yards  at  Kawasaki,  Osaka,  Ishikawajima,  Uraga,  and 
Nagasaki  have  taken  up  the  work  vigorously,  and  demon- 
strated beyond  possibility  of  cavil  their  ability  to  turn 
out  ocean-going  craft,  and  large  river  steamers  of  the 
highest  standard.  With  the  productions  of  Osaka  and 
Kobe  ship-building  establishments  trading  regularly  on 
the  Yangtze,  and  6,000-ton  liners  from  the  Nagasaki 
Shipbuilding  Engine  Works,  making  record  voyages 
between  Seattle  and  the  Orient,  and  others  running 
regularly  between  home  ports  and  London,  there  is  no 
longer  room  for  surprise  in  viewing  Japan-built  steamers. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  with  the  opening  up  of  additional 
lines  in  the  China  and  Japan  seas,  sufficient  work  for 
local  ship-builders  will  be  forthcoming  for  some  years  to 
come,  and  it  is  therefore  unlikely  that  they  will  enter 
into  serious  competition  in  the  near  future  with  ship- 
building yards  in  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  and  Singapore. 
The  home  demand  seems  likely  to  engage  their  activities 
for  some  years  yet,  though  the  presence  of  a  700-ton 
steamer  for  the  Shanghai  customs  on  the  stocks  at 
Kawasaki  may  be  held  to  belie  the  prediction.  .  .  .  Al- 
though Japanese  ship-builders  may  have  quite  enough  to 


356   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

do  in  the  near  future  to  meet  the  home  demand,  a  young 
rival  has  entered  the  lists  against  the  great  ship-building 
concerns  of  the  West ;  and  this  in  itself  is  no  small 
credit  to  the  nation,  which  is  already  able  to  plume  itself 
upon  having  accomplished  more  in  a  generation  than  any 
other  people  in  Asia  or  in  the  South  Seas,  and  as  much, 
relatively,  as  the  American  and  English  peoples  whose 
homes  are  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  Osaka  Exhibition  * 

Considering  that  as  recently  as  1873  Japan  had  no 
such  institution  as  a  factory,  and  knew  nothing  whatever 
of  iron  foundries  or  machine  shops,  the  Japanese-made 
machinery  display  at  the  exhibition  at  Osaka  was  aston- 
ishing. There  we  found  silk-weaving  and  mat-making 
machines,  electrical  motors  and  generators,  gas  and  oil 
engines,  locomotives,  electrical  fittings,  tools,  beltings, 
match-making  machine,  lemonade-making  machine,  dis- 
tilling machine,  fire-brigade  appliances,  rice-cleaning 
machines,  huge  steam  navvy,  oil  tanks,  soap-making 
machines,  printing  machines,  massive  hoisting  engine, 
tea-refining  machinery,  heavy  mining  machinery,  and 
many  other  smaller  machines,  all  of  Japanese  manufac- 
ture, admirably  made  and  efficient. 

In  general  manufactures  the  empire  made  a  good 
showing.  Straw  braid  ;  shibori^  a  beautiful  stuff,  making 
pretty  dress  material;  woollen  serges  and  woven  silks, 
particularly  a  delicate  fabric  of  mixed  silk  and  cotton 
(the  output  of  this  fabric  exceeding  $1,500,000  per 
annum)  ;  cheap  and  good  cotton  blankets,  Japanese  towels, 
artistic  designs  in  tiles  and  roofing  materials,  drainpipes, 
fireproof  bricks.     In  drinkables,  also  of  home    manu- 

1  From  "  Japan  and  America,"  by  Walter  J.  Ballard.  This  ac- 
count, with  a  few  changes,  is  retained  because  of  the  impressive 
witness  it  bears  to  the  progress  of  Japan.    (Ed.) 


APPEN"DIX  357 

facture,  there  was  beer  by  the  carload ;  sake,  the  famous 
native  drink,  enough  to  quench  the  thirst  of  an  army. 

One  of  the  best  exhibits  was  in  clocks ;  some  of  them 
very  handsome  and  very  cheap,  made  by  one  or  other  of 
the  twelve  Japanese  clock  companies.  The  porcelain 
exhibition  was  good,  consisting  of  beautiful  vases,  artistic 
porcelain  trays,  basins,  teacups,  etc.  The  exhibit  of 
Japanese-made  shoes  was  quite  creditable.  Other  native 
manufactures  exhibited  were  bamboo  furniture,  whatnots, 
over-mantels,  fire  screens,  shell  buttons,  paper  lanterns, 
fine  silken  rugs,  shawls,  paper,  camphor,  oils,  soap,  all 
kinds  of  sauces  and  relishes,  silks  of  every  hue  and  de- 
scription, silk  lace,  gold  and  silver  thread,  linen,  duck, 
tent  cloths,  ivory  work,  bronzes,  lacquer  and  silver  work, 
surgical  instruments,  pianos,  organs,  and  other  musical 
instruments,  bicycles,  gymnastic  and  athletic  goods, 
microscopes,  cameras,  barometers,  and  almost  every  kind 
of  educational  apparatus. 

The  natural  products  of  the  country  were  exhibited  to 
good  advantage.  Rice,  tobacco  (manufactured  and  un- 
manufactured), silkworms,  various  varieties  of  silk 
cocoons,  tea,  huge  oranges,  sugar,  furs,  woods,  pearls, 
coral,  fish  (dried  and  salted).  Mushrooms  were  a  special 
exhibit  of  one  prefecture,  tea  of  another,  and  so  on.  The 
whole  section  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  was 
complete  and  admirable  in  every  way. 

In  the  foreign  section  we  found  weaving-machines 
(only  introduced  October,  1902,  and  already  largely  sold), 
German  shoe-making  and  cigarette-making  machines, 
and  searchlights  from  Nuremberg,  match  and  matchbox- 
making  machines,  rifles,  wire  samples,  chemicals,  per- 
fumes, British-made  electrical  appliances,  timber,  paints, 
varnishes,  gas  and  oil  engines,  steam-engines  (British), 
a  turbo-alternator  (electric)  from  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
rubber  and  steel  goods  from  England,  Maxim's  famous 
guns,  fountain  pens,  typewriters,  Indian  cotton,  Ameri- 


358    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

can  bone  goods,  American  motor  cars  and  bicycles,  meat 
extracts,  American  provisions,  American  lighting  and 
heating  apparatus  for  railway  carriages  and  street  cars, 
refrigerator  cars,  Boston  pile-sinking  outfits,  New  York 
pumps,  marine  gasolene  engine,  and  sewing-machines. 

Canada  also  made  a  good  exhibit  of  the  cereals  and 
food  products  of  the  Dominion,  with  the  Canadian  system 
of  cold  storage,  and  of  pulp  woods,  furniture,  and  iron 
work. 

Cost  of  Living  in  Japan 

How  Laborers  Live 

The  following  tables  are  from  "  The  Labor  World " 
for  July  1,  1898.  The  editor  sent  a  form  to  be  filled 
out  by  the  laborers  themselves,  to  get  accurate  statistics 
of  their  lives  and  work.  A  few  samples  throw  light 
upon  the  inner  life  of  Japanese  laborers  :  — 

No.  1.  —  House,  two  rooms;  a  family,  — man  (30),  wife  (23),  mother  (53), 
two  sisters  (14  and  11) ;  occupation,  blacksmith. 

Working  days  in  a  month 26 

Working  hours  in  a  day 12 

Daily  wages $0.52 

Monthly  income 13.83 

Monthly  expenses 13.65 

House  rent,  one  month 0.96 

Rice 5.76 

Fuel  and  light 1.08 

VegeUbles 0.87 

Fish 0.96 

/Saifce  (rice  beer) 0.24 

Soy  (Japanese  sauce) 0.73 

Tobacco 0.20 

Hair  cutting  and  dressing 0.83 

Bath 0.88 

Pin  money 0.25 

Sundries       0.89 

No.  56.  —  House,  two  rooms,  with  kitchen;  a  family, — man  (27),  wife 
(25),  boy  (6),  girl  (2) ;  business,  iron  worker. 

Daily  wages S0.25 

Overtime  income  for  one  month 1 .50 

Monthly  income 8.28 


APPEISTDIX  359 

Monthly  expense 9.44 

House  rent 0.75 

Rice 3.25 

Fuel  and  light 0.41 

Vegetables 0.60 

Fish 0.60 

Soy  and  miso 0.23 

Tobacco 0.25 

Hair  cutting  and  dressing 0.18 

Bath 0.20 

Pin  money 0.60 

Sundries,  including  interest  on  debt 2.37 

Increase  in  Living  Expense 

The    following   interesting   comparison   between   the 
cost  of  living  in  1889  and  1899  is  from  "The  Miyako  "  : 

(Calculated  monthly  expenditure  of  a  family  of  six  members  —  a  mar- 
ried couple,  a  parent,  two  children,  and  one  servant  —  living  with  strict 

economy.) 

1889.  1899. 

yen.  yen. 
House  rent  (a  house  containing  the  furnished  rooms  of  6, 

4^,  and  2  mats,  respectively 2.50  5.00 

Cleaned  rice  (at  the  rate  of  2  sho  per  day) 4.50  7.00 

{ItoSsho  (S  sho  5  go 

■per  yen.)  ^^ev  yen) 

Soy 0.45  0.75 

Salt  and  miso  (including  IJ  go  of  salt  and  some  miso)     .  0.40  0.70 

Oils  (3  sfeo  of  kerosene  and  5  5^0  of  vegetable  oil)    .     .     .  0.45  0.69 

Sugar 0.60  0.90 

Milk  (1  go  per  day) 0.90  1.10 

Newspaper  (only  1 ) 0.25  0.35 

School  expenses'  (for  2  children) 0.80  0.90 

Stationery  expenditure  (for  the  children) 0.60  0.90 

Hair  dressing 0.34  0.69 

Price  of  bath  (every  other  day  for  the  family)  ....  0.90  1.50 

Vegetables 0.90  1.50 

Fish  food  (9  messes  for  the  family) 1.08  1.80 

Beef  (6  messes  for  the  family,  about  §  of  1  pound      .     .  0.60  1.20 

Tsuhudani  and  other  auxiliary  foods  (6  messes)    .    .     .  0.24  0.42 

Tea 0.40  0.50 

Fuel 1.00  1.80 

Total 17.21  28.20 

Security  money  for  rent 7,00  15.00 

These  include  necessaries,  but  if  other  petty  expenses 
are  taken  into  calculation.,  a  family  of  6  members  as 


360 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


mentioned  above  will  require  a  monthly  income  of  at 
least  35  yen  on  whicli  to  maintain  themselves  decently. 

Wages  of  tTapanese  Workmen 
Following  is  a  table  of  the  average  wages :  — 


1902. 
Yen. 

.775 


Carpenter per  day 

Plasterer  " 

Painter " 

Tile  Roofer " 

Roofer " 

Bricklayer " 

Furniture  Maker    ....  '* 

Stone  Mason " 

Gardener •* 

Paper  Hanger " 

Matting  Setter ♦' 

Sawyer " 

Compositor " 

Printer " 

Wooden  Clog  Maker  ...  " 

Cooper ♦* 

Fireman " 

Coolie " 

Jeweller *' 

Tailor,  Jap.  clothes     ...  " 

♦Cabinet  Maker     ....  " 

*Lacquerer " 

♦Shoemaker *' 

♦Harness  Maker     ....  " 

*Cart  Maker ♦' 

♦Founder " 

♦Blacksmith " 

♦Rice  Pounder " 

♦Dyer %  per  month  ....    8.875 

♦Washerman     ....  "           ....  10.000 

♦Jap.  Sock  Maker      .    . 

♦Eur.  Confectioner     .     . 

♦Male  Servant  .... 

♦Female  Servant    .     .     . 

♦Tailor,  Eur.  clothes  .     . 


.860 
.613 
,913 
.900 
.800 
.925 
,600 
.825 
.900 
863 
575 
,400 
,638 
700 
550 
450 
650 
688 
550 
513 
750 
675 
550 
813 
813 
375 


6.000 
9.750 
2.625 
2.000 
17.625 


*  With  board. 


1911. 
Yen. 

1.063 

1.150 

1.238 

1.225 

1.213 

1.250 

.988 

1.250 

.838 

1.025 

1.175 

1.088 

.750 

.650 

.625 

.528 

.813 

.575 

.650 

.738 

.888 

.600 

1.038 

1.038 

.588 

.700 

1.075 

.483 

8.375 

7.750 

9.500 

13.000 

4.000 

3.250 

30.000 


Railways  in  Japan 
The  report  on  railway  development  shows  that  since 
the  government  constructed  its   first  line  of  eighteen 


APPENDIXj  361 

miles  from  Yokohama  to  Tokyo  in  1872,  a  great  trunk 
line  of  1,200  miles  has  been  built,  and  the  total  mileage 
in  the  country  increased  to  6,042,  which  in  1910  handled 
153,088,066  passengers  and  25,815,000  tons  of  freight. 
Of  this  entire  mileage,  506  miles  are  owned  by  private 
corporations,  and  5,536  by  the  government,  which  was 
the  pioneer  in  the  movement  to  give  the  country  modern 
land  transportation.  No  private  construction  was  done 
until  1883,  when  the  government  had  181  miles  of  railway 
under  operation ;  and  it  was  not  until  1889  that  private 
enterprise  for  a  time  led  the  governmental  effort.  The 
state  railways  to  August,  1905,  cost  the  sum  of  85,573,511 
yen,  while  the  private  systems  represented  a  cost  for  con- 
struction to  the  same  date  of  191,230,291  yen.  In  1910 
the  grand  total  had  reached  almost  577,000,000  yen. 

According  to  the  reports  made  on  the  railways  at  the 
end  of  the  year  1910  the  gross  earnings  of  both  state  and 
private  railways  for  that  year  were  89,000,000  yen,  the 
gross  expenditures  46,796,000  yen,  and  the  net  profit 
over  43,700,000  yen. 

The  government  has  arranged  plans  for  railway  con- 
struction and  development  which  involve  an  outlay  of 
174,523,365  yen,  the  construction  to  extend  through  eight 
years,  and  the  improvements  through  twelve. 

The  line  from  Nagoya  to  Haichio  j  i,  near  Tokyo,  opened  to 
traffic  in  1911,  is  about  224  miles  long.  The  construction 
represents  the  best  engineering  skill,  and  an  outlay  of 
$17,500,000.    It  has  ninety-five  tunnels  and  350  bridges. 

The  people  of  the  country  opposed  the  construction  of 
the  first  line  from  Yokohama  to  Tokyo  as  a  dangerous 
thing,  and  it  was  several  years  before  public  opposition 
to  the  innovation  was  entirely  removed.  Bond  issues  for 
railway  construction  were  opposed,  but  the  government 
insisted  on  its  policy  and  finally  won  the  people  to  its 
general  support,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  1908 


362 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


on  all  lines  there  were  2, 156  locomotives,  6,951  passenger 
coaches,  and  34,045  freight  cars  in  use. 


Postal  Savings  in  Japan  ^ 

It  must  be  admitted  at  the  outset  that  the  system  of 
postal  savings  in  Japan  cannot  boast  of  any  particularly 
brilliant  record.  The  study  of  it  reveals,  however,  a 
state  of  things  which  is  not  without  some  encouraging 
features.  We  give  below  the  amounts  of  the  deposits 
and  some  other  items  for  every  third  year  since  the 
inauguration  of  the  institution :  — 


Deposits  at  the  End 

Amount  per 

Tbab. 

OF  THB  Yeae. 

No.  OF  Dkpositobs. 

DBPosrroR. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1875 

15,000 

1,800 

8 

1878 

286,000 

14,100 

20 

1881 

821,000 

38,900 

21 

1884 

5,260,000 

141,200 

37 

1887 

18,213,000 

568,800 

31 

1890 

19,197,000 

813,700 

25 

1893 

26,155,000 

1,060,200 

24 

1896 

28,251,000 

1,273,300 

21 

1899 

23,455,000 

1,397,600 

16 

1902 

28,536,000 

2,707,500 

10 

1905 

54,754,096 

5,858,560 

9 

1908 

92,389,473 

7,886,279 

12 

1911 

200,000,000 

12,000,000 

17 

The  sudden  drop  between  the  years  1896  and  1902  is 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  extraordinarily  high  interest 
offered  by  the  ordinary  banks  during  that  period  of 
monetary  stringency  diverted  deposits  from  the  Post 
Offices.  The  gradual  fall  in  the  general  rates  of  interest 
since  then  has  already  begun  to  turn  the  tide  back  in 
favor  of  the  Post  Offices,  as  shown  by  the  figures  for 
late  years.     What  is  particularly  satisfactory  is  the  in- 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Times,"  revised. 


APPENDIX  363 

crease  in  the  number  of  depositors,  the  increase  in  this 
respect  being  far  more  remarkable  than  the  increase  in 
the  amount  of  the  deposits,  as  shown  by  the  decreasing 
amount  per  depositor.  This  means,  if  it  means  any- 
thiog,  that  the  advantages  offered  by  the  Postal  Savings 
Bank  are  more  and  more  extensively  appreciated  by  the 
poorer  classes. 

The  amount  of  deposits  at  the  Postal  Savings  Bank 
seems  to  be  steadily  increasing,  as  is  shown  by  the  table. 
The  figures  for  1909,  not  given  there,  show  9,717,236 
depositors,  and  122,098,101  yen  deposits. 

Not  altogether  unsatisfactory  as  is  this  result  of  the 
official  efforts  to  encourage  the  saving  habit  among  the 
people,  it  must  be  noted  that  we  are  in  this  respect  far 
behiod  some  of  the  European  countries.  Consulting  the 
statistics  for  the  year  1898,  we  find  the  postal  savings 
reached  in  that  year  to  £120,000,000  in  England,  £33,000,- 
000  in  France,  £21,000,000  in  Belgium,  £4,800,000  in  Aus- 
tria, £1,000,000  in  Hungary,  £2,700,000  in  Holland,  and 
£3,400,000  in  Sweden.  In  spite  of  the  great  improve- 
ment effected  in  the  system  of  late  years,  especially  in 
the  way  of  simplifying  the  official  procedure  connected 
with  the  acceptance  and  repayment  of  the  deposits,  much 
still  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to  bring  the  facilities 
provided  by  it  within  easy  reach  of  the  people  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  the  Post  Offices  authorized  to 
receive  deposits  throughout  the  country. 

While  speaking  of  savings,  it  may  not  be  uninterest- 
ing to  mention  a  few  figures  on  the  state  of  the  deposits 
at  the  ordinary  banks.  We  do  not  happen  to  have  at 
hand  the  statistics  covering  all  the  banking  concerns  in 
the  country.  The  "  Ginko  Tsushin-Koku,''  however,  sup- 
plies us  with  reliable  statistics  up  to  February,  1902,  so 
far  as  the  principal  banking  centres  are  concerned.  We 
find,  then,  that  the  total  amount  of  deposits  at  the  banks 
belonging  to  the  clearing-houses  of  Tokyo,  Osaka,  Kyoto, 


364   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Nagoya,  Yokohama,  and  Kobe,  stood  at  the  end  of  Feb- 
ruary at  308,289,000  yen,  made  up  as  follows,  not  includ- 
ing the  deposits  at  the  Bank  of  Japan  : 

Yen. 

Tokyo 119,268,000 

Osaka 75,824,000 

Yokohama 49,280,000 

Kobe       23,423,000 

Kyoto 22,616,000 

Nagoya 17,878,000 

In  June,  1910,  the  Bank  of  Japan  had  a  paid-up  capital 
of  37,600,000  2/m;  in  1909  the  deposits  were  220,101,784 
yen.  At  that  time  the  Industrial  Bank  of  Japan  had 
deposits  of  8,930,050  yen.  The  deposits  in  all  the  Jap- 
anese banks  in  1909  amounted  to  1,617,873,711  yen. 

The  Oil  Industry  in  Japan  ^ 

Japan's  oil  industry  has  a  brilliant  future  before  it. 
The  use  of  kerosene  in  the  country  has  grown  at  a  won- 
derfully rapid  pace.  In  the  first  year  of  Meiji  the 
amount  of  oil  imported  was  639  koku.  In  1901  it  had 
reached  1,300,000  koku.  The  value  of  the  oil  imported 
in  1868  was  only  7,236  yen ;  that  imported  in  1901  was 
14  million  yen?'  The  following  table  shows  the  rate  at 
which  the  import  of  kerosene  into  Japan  increased  :  — 


Ykabs. 

Koha. 

Fen. 

1868 

639 

7,236 

1872 

8,936 

160,608 

1877 

53,645 

605,598 

1882 

413,644 

2,320,905 

1887 

421,177 

1,871,428 

1893 

653,785 

3,328,398 

1897 

1,221,164 

7,667,350 

1900 

1,356,846 

14,162,652 

1901 

1,379,927 

14,943,400 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Mail."      «  In  1910,  it  was  over  14,000,000  yen. 


APPENDIX 


365 


Notwithstanding  the  large  supply  that  has  come  from 
abroad,  of  late  years  the  demand  for  the  Echigo  oil  has 
gone  on  increasing,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  table, 
which  covers  seven  years. 


Ybabs. 

Koku  OF  Chudb 

Valttb. 

Pbtroleum. 

Yen. 

1895 

158,334 

526,976 

1896 

207,470 

619,333 

1897 

257,614 

668,677 

1898 

355,006 

670,308 

1899 

544,583 

1,450,904 

1900 

836,628 

2,142.003 

1901 

1,115,807 

2,345,916 

It  is  calculated  that  about  5/10  of  the  total  quantity  of 
this  crude  petroleum  was  used  for  lighting  purposes. 
It  would  seem,  then,  that  Echigo  supplied  3/10  of  the 
total  amount  of  oil  used  for  lighting  in  Japan  during 
the  seven  years,  and  that  the  remaining  7/10  came  from 
abroad.  Taking  the  year  1901,  the  value  of  the  crude 
petroleum  being  2,345,916  yen^  it  is  estimated  that  when 
refined  this  amount  of  petroleum  would  fetch  not  less 
than  4  million  yen.  But  the  fact  remains  that  the  pro- 
portion of  oil  imported  is  still  very  large,  so  that  there 
is  room  for  a  further  great  development  of  the  business. 
In  1908  Japan's  output  of  petroleum  was  1,872,592 
U.  S.  barrels.  Echigo  is  by  no  means  worked  out:  new 
fields  are  constantly  being  discovered  in  that  prov- 
ince. Then  petroleum  has  been  found  in  Hokkaido 
and  in  the  Yamagata  and  Shizuoka  prefectures.  So 
that  among  Japan's  modern  industries  her  oil  trade  may 
be  pronounced  to  be  full  of  promise.  How  the  quality 
of  the  Japanese  oil  compares  with  the  American  and 
Eussian  brands,  we  are  not  told  by  the  Jiji^  but  from 
other  sources  we  gather  that  when  properly  refined 
Japanese  petroleum  is  equal  to  the  best  American  and 
Eussian  oils. 


366 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


NATIONAL 

The  following  table    shows    the    national  development   vi  population, 
the  30  years  from  1872  to  1902. 


Teab. 

POPULATIOW. 

(IN  Thousand.) 

Statb 

EXPBNDITtlBE. 

Yen. 

Trade. 
Yen. 

1872 

33,210 

57,730,025 

43,204,462 

1873 

33,300 

62,678,601 

49,742,830 

1874 

33,625 

82,269,528 

42,779,120 

1875 

33,997 

69,203,242 

48,580,738 

1876 

34,338 

59,308,956 

51,676,296 

1877 

(unknown) 

48,428,324 

50,769,424 

1878 

<( 

60,911,336 

58,862,974 

1879 

35,768 

60,317,578 

61,128,772 

1880 

35,929 

63,140.896 

65,021,987 

1881 

36,358 

71,460,321 

62,250,133 

1882 

36,700 

73,480,667 

67,168,344 

1883 

37,017 

83,106,859 

64,712,861 

1884 

37,451 

76,663,108 

63,544,112 

1885  ♦ 

37,868  " 

61,115,313- 

66,503,659 

1886 

38,507 

83,223,960 

84,044,745 

1887 

39,069 

79,453,036 

96,711,932 

1888 

39,607 

81,504,024 

131,160,744 

1889 

40,072 

79,713,671 

136,164,472 

1890 

40,453 

82,125,403 

138,332,086 

1891 

40,718 

83,558.891 

142,454,540 

1892 

41,089 

76,734,740 

162,428,833 

1893 

41,388 

84,581,872 

177,970,036 

1894 

41,813 

78,128,643 

230,028,141 

1895 

42,270 

85,317,179 

265,372,756 

1896 

42,706 

168,856,509 

289,517,234 

1897 

43,228 

223,678,844 

382,435,848 

1898 

43,763 

219,757,568 

443,255,909 

1899 

44,260 

254.165,537 

435,331,802 

1900 

.... 

292,720,996 

491,691,839 

1901 

206.856,824 

508,166,187 

1902 

.... 

275,751,194 

Note.  —  In  expenditure,  the  figures  from  1872  up  to  1898  are  taken 
from  the  settled  account,  and  those  of  1899,  1900,  and  1901  from  the  actual 
account.  1902  is  from  the  Budget.  In  railways,  the  figures  show  the 
mileages  of  the  lines  belonging  to  the  government  as  well  as  those  belong- 
ing to  private  firms  opened  to  traffic  at  the  end  of  the  respective  j'ears. 
The  tonnage  of  vessels  shown  in  the  table  is  that  of  steamers.    B«fort 


>  From  the  "  T5y5  Eeizai  Shimpo"  (Oriental  EoonomiBt). 


APPENDIX 


367 


DEVELOPMENT. 

finance,  trade,  railway,  vessels,  telegraphs,  savings,  and  currency,  during 


Railwat. 
Milks, 

Vessels. 
Ton. 

Telegraphic 

Lines. 

Mi. 

Savings. 
Yen. 

Monet  in 

ClKCULATION. 

Yen. 

18 

22,364 

87 

132,611,498- 

18 

26,988 

806 

.... 

159,423,361* 

38 

26,120 

1,758 

.... 

157,660,830* 

38 

42,304 

1,833 

15,224 

154,931,596. 

65 

40,248 

2,156 

41,845 

163,692,344. 

66 

49,105 

2,876 

100,138 

175,432,023  - 

68 

43,899 

3,512 

286,289 

221,994,874* 

73 

42,763 

3,842 

494,114 

215,912,239* 

98 

41,215 

4,489 

662,091 

203,994,171* 

122 

41,044 

5.078 

821,938 

195,742,688' 

170 

42,107 

5,477 

1,058.225 

186,376,681 

244 

45,350 

5,871 

2,298,502 

182,625,317 

262 

49,845 

6,122 

5,260,484 

177,978,053^ 

-^353 

59,613. 

6,283 . 

•  9,050,255 

181, 433,916  ♦ 

430 

63,314 

6,353 

15,462,054 

198,557,838 

593 

72,322 

6,818 

18,417,022 

200,157,163 

912 

81,066 

7,588 

20,142,169 

207,825,609 

1,136 

88,816 

8,191 

19,976,419 

220,748,343 

1,339 

93,812 

9,250 

19,197,942 

205,408.438 

1,716 

95,588 

9,113 

26,424,174 

210,872,584 

1,870 

102,301 

9,920 

30,031,483 

219,848,385 

1,938 

110,205 

10,230 

32,199.954 

244,847,437 

2,118 

169,414 

11,502 

32,772,652 

256,088,534 

2,290 

213,221 

12,212 

41,143,695 

291,665,016 

2,507 

227,841 

15,431 

46,693,884 

307,461,803 

2,948 

426,624 

18,360 

51,550,536 

330,470.142 

3,120 

464,246 

20,561 

52,532,992 

285,589,698 

3,638 

498,376 

24,342 

68,829,712 

332.702,090 

3,855 

534,239 

27,390 

72,897,286 

318,280,814 

4,026 

•  *  *  * 

•  •  »  • 

306,315,006 

1896,  the  figures  represented  the  aggregate  amount  of  both  registered  and 
unregistered  tonnage,  while  from  that  year  up  to  1902,  the  figures  only 
represented  registered  tonnage.  In  savings,  the  figures  show  the  total 
amount  saved  in  the  post  offices  as  well  in  the  savings  banks  at  the  end  oi 
the  respective  years.  The  figures  from  1890  to  1900  indicate,  however,  the 
amounts  of  the  postal  savings  only. 


368 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


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APPENDIX  369 


The  Wealth  of  Japan 

The  following  estimate  gives  an  idea  of  the  wealth  of 
Japan  and  its  distribution :  — 

Land 7,000  millions  yen. 

Mines 500  "  «' 

Live-stock 80  "  " 

Buildings  .    .     .' 1,900  "  " 

Furniture 400  "  " 

Railroads 350  "  " 

Warships  and  merchant-ships    ....  250  "  " 

Specie 200  "  " 

Miscellaneous 300  "  " 

Goods  and  other  products 800  "  " 

Total 11,080        "         « 

The  output  of  gold  in  1908  was  168,883  ounces.      ' 

On  the  position  Japanese  occupy  as  regards  the  ac- 
quisition of  wealth  Mr.  Kure  Bunso,  the  well-known 
statistician,  writes  in  the  "  Shakaigaku  Zasshi "  as  follows : 
There  are  only  two  men  in  Japan  who  pay  an  income 
tax  on  over  250,000  yen.  There  are  only  13  men  in  the 
whole  country  who  pay  on  39,000  yen,  being  in  the  pro- 
portion of  4  persons  to  every  100,000  inhabitants ;  only 
67  who  pay  on  24,000  yen,  being  in  the  proportion  of  2 
persons  to  every  10,000  inhabitants ;  96  persons  who 
pay  on  17,000  yen,  being  in  the  proportion  of  2.8  persons 
to  every  10,000  inhabitants  ;  those  who  pay  on  11,000 
yen  number  140,  being  in  the  proportion  of  4  persons  to 
every  10,000  inhabitants.  Out  of  every  1,000  inhabitants 
there  are  only  7  persons  who  make  2,700  yen  a  year. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  when  compared  with  the  French 
and  the  English  the  Japanese  are  extremely  poor.  The 
Germans  seem  to  be  rich  to  the  Japanese,  though  when 
compared  with  the  French  and  English  they  are  poor. 
General  Grant,  when  in  Japan  nearly  twenty  years  ago, 

24 


370    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

remarked  that  Japan  was  fortunate  in  having  such  an 
equality  among  all  classes  of  the  people.  He  said  that 
the  gulf  between  the  rich  and  the  poor  did  not  exist  here. 
Equality  may  be  all  very  well  in  its  way,  but,  says  Mr. 
Kure,  a  state  of  equality  in  which  most  of  the  people 
hardly  have  enough  to  live  on  is  anything  but  desirable.^ 


•  The  new  building  of  the  Mitsui  Company  in  Tokyo  is  con- 
structed upon  steel  frames,  and  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind 
in  the  East.  The  Mitsui  Bank  is  the  oldest  banking  estab- 
lishment in  Japan,  more  than  200  years  old.  The  building 
area  is  2,600  square  yards  on  a  site  covering  2J  acres. 

Japanese  Year  Periods 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Japanese  year 
periods  do  not  regularly  correspond  with  the  reigns  of 
the  Emperors,  because  "  a  new  one  was  chosen  whenever 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to  commemorate  an  auspicious 
or  ward  off  a  malign  event."  But  hereafter  the  era  will 
f/Orrespond  with  the  reign  of  an  Emperor.  The  names 
of  some  of  these  eras  are  quite  famous,  like  the  Eliza- 
bethan or  the  Victorian  Era  in  English  history.  As  the 
first  era  was  a  time  of  great  reforms,  it  is  known  as 
the  Taikwa  Reformation;  the  Engi  Era,  in  the  tenth 
century,  is  celebrated  for  important  legislation;  the 
Genroku  Era,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  *'  a  period 
of  great  activity  in  various  arts  " ;  and  the  Tempo  Era, 
of  recent  days,  was  "  the  last  brilliant  period  of  feudal- 
ism before  its  fall."  This  name  was  also  given  to  the 
large  8  rin  piece  coined  in  that  era.  The  Wado  Era, 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  was  so  named  on  account  of 
the  discovery  of  copper ;  and  the  second  era,  Hakuchi, 
commemorates  a  "white  pheasant,"  presented  to  the 
Emperor. 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Mail." 


APPENDIX 


371 


LIST  OF  JAPANESE  YEAR  PERIODS.! 


Namb. 

Japakesb 

EEA.2 

Christian 
Era. 

Namb. 

Japanese 
Era. 

Christian 
Era. 

Taikwa  .     .     . 

1305 

645 

Tengen       .     . 

1638 

978 

Hakuchi      .     . 

1310 

650 

Eikwan      .     . 

1643 

983 

(Blank)  .     .     . 

1315-1331 

655-671 

Kwanna     .     . 

1645 

985 

Sujaku    .     .     . 

1332 

672 

Eien      .     .     . 

1647 

987 

Hakiiho  . 

1332 

672 

Eiso  [Eisho]  . 

1649 

989 

Shucho   .     .     . 

1346 

686 

Shoriaku    .     . 

1650 

990 

(Blank)  .     .     . 

1347-1360 

687-700 

Chotoku     .     . 

1655 

995 

Daihd  [Taiho] 

1361 

701 

Choho   .    .     . 

1659 

999 

Keiun      .     .     . 

1364 

704 

Kwanko     .     . 

1664 

1004 

Wado     .     .     . 

1368 

708 

Chowa  .     .     . 

1672 

1012 

Reiki.     .     .     . 

1375 

715 

Kwannin    .     . 

1677 

1017 

Yoro  .... 

1377 

717 

Ji-an     .     .     . 

1681 

1021 

Jinki  rShinki] . 

1384 

724 

Manju  .     .     . 

1684 

1024 

Tembio   .    .    . 

1389 

729 

Chogen      .     . 

1688 

1028 

Tembio  shoho  . 

1409 

749 

Choriaku  .     . 

1697 

1037 

Tembio  hoji 

1417 

757 

Chokiii .     .     . 

1700 

1040 

Tembio  jingo  . 

1425 

765 

Kwantoku 

1704 

1044 

Jingo  keiun      . 

1427 

767 

Eijo  [Eisho]  . 
Tengi  [Tenki] 

1706 

1046 

Hoki  .... 

1430 

770 

1713 

1053 

Teno  .... 

1441 

781 

Kohei    .     .     . 

1718 

1058 

Enriaku  .     .     . 

1442 

782 

Jiriaku       .     . 

1725 

1065 

Daido      .     .     . 

1466 

806 

Enkiu    .     .     . 

1729 

1069 

Konin     .     .     . 

1470 

810 

Joho [Shoho] . 

1734 

1074 

Tencho    .     .     . 

1484 

824 

Joriaku  [Shoreki' 

1737 

1077 

Jowa  rShowa] 
Kajo  [KashoJ. 

1494 

834 

Eiho      .     .     . 

1741 

1081 

1508 

848 

Otoku    .     .     . 

1744 

1084 

Ninju      .     .     . 

1511 

851 

Kwanji      .     . 

1747 

1087 

Saiko.    .    .     . 

1514 

854 

Kaho     .     .     . 

1754 

1094 

Teuan     .     .     . 

1517 

857 

Eicho    .    .     . 

1756 

1096 

Jogwan  [Jokwan] 

1519 

859 

Jotoku  [Shotoku' 

1757 

1097 

Gwangio[Genkei] 
Ninna  [Ninwa] 

1537 

877 

Kowa    .    .    . 

1759 

1099 

1545 

885 

Choji     .     .    . 

1764 

1104 

Kwampei     .    . 

1549 

889 

Kajo  [Kasho] 

1766 

1106 

Shotai     .     .    . 

1558 

898 

Tennin .     .     . 

1768 

1108 

Engi  .... 

1561 

901 

Tenei    .     .     . 

1770 

1110 

Encho     .     .     . 

1583 

923 

Eikia    .     .     . 

1773 

1113 

Johei  rShohei] 

1591 

931 

Genei    .     .     . 

1778 

1118 

Tengio[Tenkei] 

1598 

938 

Hoan    .     .     . 

1780 

1120 

Tenriaku     .     . 

1607 

947 

Tenji     .    .     . 
Daiji     .     .     . 

1784 

1124 

Tentoku.     .     . 

1617 

957 

1786 

1126 

Owa  .... 

1621 

961 

Tenjo  Tensho 
Cho'jo[Chosho 

1791 

1131 

Koho.     .     .     . 

1624 

964 

1792 

1132 

Anna      .     .     . 

1628 

968 

Hoen     •      •     . 

1795 

1135 

Tenroku      .     . 

1630 

970 

Eiji        .      .     . 

1801 

1141 

Ten-en    .     .     . 

1633 

■973 

Koji       .     .     . 

1802 

1142 

Jogen      .     .     . 

1636 

976 

Tenyo   ... 

1804 

1144 

^  From  official  sources. 


*  Beginning  660  B.  C. 


372 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Naub. 

Japaotisb 
Eba. 

CmiT8TIA» 

Eba. 

Nai 

Japanbbb 

'»•                     E«A. 

Chemtiah 

Kiu-an    .    .     . 

1805 

1145 

Sho-o 

.     .     .        1948 

1288 

Nimbio   .     .     . 

1811 

1151 

Einin 

.     .     .         1953 

1293 

Kiuju      .     .     . 

1814 

1154 

Shoan 

.     .     .         1959 

1299 

Hoi?en     .     .     . 

1816 

1156 

Kengen 

.     .         1962 

1302 

Heiji       .     .     . 

1819 

1159 

Kagen 

.     .     .         1963 

1303 

Eiriaku  .    .     . 

1820 

1160 

Tokuji 

.     .     .         1966 

1306 

Oho    .... 

1821 

1161 

Enkio  [ 

En-keiJ       1968 

1308 

Chokwan     .     . 

1823 

1163 

Ocho 

.     .     .        1971 

1311 

£iman     .     .     . 

1825 

1165 

Showa 

.     .     .        1972 

1312 

Ninan     .    .     . 

1826 

1166 

Bumpo 

.     .     .        1977 

1317 

Ka-o  .... 

1829 

1169 

Gen-o 

.     .     .        1979 

1319 

Jo-an  [Shoan] . 

1831 

1171 

Genko 

.     .     .        1981 

1321 

Angen    .     .     . 

1835 

1175 

Shochu 

.     .         1984 

1324 

Jisho.     .    .     . 

1837 

1177 

Kariaku 

.     .         1986 

1326 

Yovva      .     .     . 

1841 

1181 

Gentoki 

.     .         1989 

1329 

Juei  .... 

1842 

1182 

Shokio[ 

Shokei]       1992 

1332 

Genriaku     .     . 

1844 

1184 

Kemmu 

.     .         1994 

1334 

Bunji      .     .     . 
Kenkiu  .     .     . 

1845 

1185 

Rekio 

.     .         1998 

13381 

1850 

1190 

Koei 

.     .        2002 

13421 

Shoji  .... 

1859 

1199 

Jowa 

.     .        2005 

13451 

Kennin   .     .     . 

1861 

1201 

Kwano 

.     .        2010 

13501 

Genkia  .     .     . 

1864 

1204 

Bunna 

.     .        2012 

13621 

Kenei      .     .     . 

1866 

1206 

Embun 

.     .        2016 

13561 

Jogen  [Shogen] 
Kenriaku    .     . 

1867 
1871 

1207 
1211 

Koan 
Joji  . 

.     .         2021 
.     .        2022 

13611 
13621 

Keinpo    .     .     . 

1873 

1213 

Oan  . 

.     .        2028 

13681 

Jokiu[Sh3kiu] 

1879 

1219 

Eiwa 

.     .        2035 

13751 

Jo-o    .     .     .     . 

1882 

1222 

Koreki 

.     .        2039 

13791 

Gennin    .     .     . 

1884 

1224 

Eitoku 

.     .        2041 

13811 

Karoku  .     .     . 

1885 

1225 

Shitoku 

.     .        2044 

13841 

Antei       .     .     . 

1887 

1227 

Kakei 

.     .        2047 

13871 

Kwangi  .     .     . 

1889 

1229 

Koo. 

.     .        2049 

13891 

T-          • 

Jo-ei        .     .     . 

1892 

1232 

Engen 

.     .        1996 

1336  2 

Tempuku    .     . 

1893 

1233 

Kokoku 

.     .        2000 

1.3402 

Bunriaku     .     . 

1894 

1234 

Sliohei 

.     .        2006 

1346  3 

Katei.     .     .     . 

1895 

1235 

Kentoki 

I     .     .         2030 

13702 

Kiakunin     .     . 

1898 

1238  N 

Bunchu 

.     .         2032 

13722 

En-o  .... 

1899 

1239 

Tenju 

.     .         2035 

13752 

Niiiji       .     .     . 

1900 

1240 

Kowa 

.     .         2041 

18812 

Kwaufftn    .     . 

1903 

1243 

Genchu 

.     .         2044 

13842 

H5ji  :  .   .   . 

1907 

1247 

M  eitoku 

.     .         2050 

1390 

KenehS  .    .     . 

1909 

1249 

0-ei  . 

.     .         2054 

1394 

KSgen    .    .     . 

1916 

1256 

Shocho 

.     .        2088 

1428 

Sh5ka     .    .     . 

1917 

1257 

Eikio 

.     .        2089 

1429 

Shogen   .     .     . 

1919 

1259 

Kakitsu 

.     .        2101 

1441 

Buno  .    .     .     . 

1920 

1260 

Bunan 

.     .        2104 

1444 

Kocho     .    .     . 

1921 

1261 

Ilotoku 

.     .        2109 

1449 

Bunei      .     .     . 

1924 

1264 

Kotoku 

.     .        2112 

1452 

Kenji.     .     .     . 

1935 

1275 

Kosho 

.     .        2115 

1455 

Koan  .     .     .     . 

1938 

1278 

Choroki 

I    .     .        2117 

1457 

1  Northern  Dynastj. 


s  Southern  Dynasty. 


APPENDIX 


373 


Namb. 

Japanbsb 
Era. 

Christian 
Era. 

Namr, 

Japanese 

Era. 

Christian 
Era. 

KwanshS     .     . 

2120 

1460 

Tenna   .     .     . 

2341 

1681 

Bunsho   .     .     . 

2126 

1466 

Jokio     . 

2344 

1684 

Onin  .... 

2127 

1467 

Genroku     . 

2348 

1688 

Bummei      .     . 

2129 

1469 

Ho-ei     . 

2364 

1704 

Choko     .     .    . 

2147 

1487 

Shotoku 

2371 

1711 

Entoku    .     .     . 

2149 

1489 

Kioho    . 

2376 

1716 

Mei-o      .     .     . 

2152 

1492 

Gembun 

2396 

1736 

Bunki      .     .     . 

2161 

1501 

Kwampo 

2401 

1741 

EishS      .     .     . 

2164 

1504 

Enkio    . 

2404 

1744 

Dai-ei  [Taiei]  . 

2181 

1521 

Kwannen 

2408 

1748 

Koroku  ,     .     . 

2188 

1528 

Horeki  .     . 

2411 

1751 

Tembun       .     . 

2192 

1532 

Meiwa  .    . 

2424 

1764 

Koji    .     .     .     . 

2215 

1555 

Anei 

2432 

1772 

Eiroku    .     .    . 

2218 

1558 

Teramei 

2441 

1781 

Genki     .     .     . 

2230 

1570 

Kwansei 

2449 

1789 

Tensho    .     .     . 

2233 

1573 

Kiowa  . 

2461 

1801 

Bunroku      .     . 

2252 

1592 

Bunkwa 

2464 

1804 

Keicho    .     .     . 

2256 

1596 

Bunsei  . 

2478 

1818 

Genna     .     .     . 

2275 

1615 

Tempo  . 

2490 

1830 

Kwanei  .     .     . 

2284 

1624 

Kokwa 

2504 

1844 

Shoho     .     .     . 

2304 

1644 

Ka-ei     . 

2508 

1848 

Kei-an     .     .     . 

2308 

1648 

Ansei     . 

2514 

1854 

Jo-o  [Sho-o]     . 

2312 

1652 

Manen  . 

2520 

1860 

Meireki  .     .     . 

2315 

1655 

Bunkiu 

2521 

1861 

Manji      .     .     . 

2318 

1658 

Genii     . 

2524 

1864 

Kwambun   .     . 

2321 

1661 

Kei-o     . 

2525 

1865 

Empo      .     .     . 

2333 

1673 

Meiii     . 
Taisho  . 

2528 
2572 

1868 
1912 

The  names  of  these  periods  are  made  by  the  various  combinations  of 
68  Chinese  words  of  good  omen. 


There  are,  moreover,  other  expressions  which  more 
closely  resemble  such  common  Occidental  phrases  as  the 
Victorian  Era,  the  Elizabethan  Era,  the  Age  of  Pericles, 
except  that  in  the  impersonal  Orient  such  expressions 
are  named  more  often  from  places.  In  Japanese  history, 
for  instance,  it  is  very  common  to  read  of  the  Nara 
Epoch,  the  Heian  Epoch,  the  Muromachi  Period,  the 
Kamakura  Period,  the  Yedo  Era,  the  Tokyo  Period 
(Modern  Japan).  Personal  names  are  applied,  however, 
in  such  cases  as  the  Hojo  Era,  the  Ashikaga  Period, 
the  Tokugawa  Era,  the  Fujiwara  Period. 


374   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Chronological  Table  of  Emperors  and  Empresses.^ 


1.  Jimrau  (660-585  B.  c.) 

2.  Suizei  (581-549) 
Annei  (548-511) 
Itoku  (510-477) 
Kosho  (475-393) 
Koan  (392-291) 
Korei  (290-215) 
Kogen  (214-158) 
Kaikwa  (157-98) 

10.  Sujin  (97-30) 

11.  Suinin  (29  b.  C.-70  A.  D., 
Keiko  (71-130  A.  D.) 
Seimu  (131-190) 
Chuai  (192-200) 
Jingo  ^  (201-269)] 
Ojin  (270-310) 
Nintoku  (313-399) 
Richu  (400-405) 
Hanzei  (406-411) 
Ingyo  (412-453) 
Anko  (454-456) 
Yuryaku  (457-479) 
Seinei  (480-484) 

24.  Kensi5  (485-487) 

25.  Ninken  (488-498) 

26.  Muretsu  (499-506) 
Keitai  (507-531) 
Ankan  (534-535) 
Senkwa  (536-539) 
Kimmei  (540-571) 
Bidatsu  (572-585) 
Yomei  (586-587) 
Sujun  (588-592) 
Suiko  (593-628) 

35.   Joinei  (629-641) 
Kdgyoku  (642-645) 
Kotoku  (645-654) 
Saimei  (655-661) 
Tench i  (668-671) 
Kobun  (672) 
Temmu  (673-686) 
Jito  (690-696) 


12. 
13. 
14. 
[15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 


27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 


37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 


43.  Mommu  (697-707) 


44.  Gemmyo  (70S-715) 

45.  Gensho  (715-723) 

46.  Shorau  (724-748) 

47.  Koken  (749-758) 

48.  Junnin  (758-764) 

49.  Shotoku  (765-770) 

50.  Konin  (770-781) 

51.  Kwammu  (782-806) 

52.  Heizei  (806-809) 

53.  Saga  (809-823) 

54.  Junna  (823-833) 

55.  Nimmyo  (833-850) 

56.  Montoku  (850-858) 

57.  Seiwa  (859-876) 

58.  Yozei  (877-884) 

59.  Koko  (884-887) 

60.  Uda  (888-897) 

61.  Daigo  (897-930) 

62.  Sujaku  (931-946) 

63.  Murakami  (946-967) 

64.  Keizei  (968-969) 

65.  Enyu  (970-984) 

66.  Kwazan  (985-986) 

67.  Ichijo  (987-1011) 

68.  Sanjo  (1012-1016) 

69.  Go-Ichijo 2  (1016-1036) 

70.  Go-Sujaku  (1037-1045) 

71.  Go-Reizei  (1045-1068) 

72.  Go-Sanjo  (1068-1072) 

73.  Shirakawa  (1073-1086) 

74.  Horikawa  (1087-1107) 

75.  Toba  (1108-1123) 

76.  Sutoku  (1123-1141) 

77.  Konoye  (1142-1155) 

78.  Go-Shirakawa  (1155-1158) 

79.  Nijo  (1159-1165) 

80.  Rokujo  (1165-1168) 

81.  Takakura  (1168-1180) 

82.  Antoku  (1180-1185) 

83.  Go-Toba  (1186-1198) 

84.  Tsuchimikado  (1198-1210) 

85.  Juntoku  (1211-1221) 

86.  Chukyo(1221) 


Empresses  in  Italics.    Bracketed  names  (Nos.  15  and  99)  are  omitted  from  i 


Usts. 


*  60  is  a  prefix  sigaifying  the  secoud  of  the  name. 


APPENDIX 


375 


87. 


90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 
[99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
112. 


Go-Horikawa  (1221-1232) 
Shijo  (1233-1242) 
Go-Saga  (1242-1246) 
Go-Fukakusa  (1246-1259) 
Kamevama  (1260-1274) 
Go-Uda  (1274-1287) 
Fushimi  (1288-1298) 
Go-Fushimi  (1298-1301) 
Go-Nijo  (1301-1308) 
Hanazono  (1308-1318) 
Go-Daigo  (1318-1338) 
Go-Murakami  (1339-1368) 
Chokei  (1368-1372)] 
Go-Kameyama  (1373-1392) 
Go-Komatsu  (1392-1412) 
Shoko  (1412-1428) 
Go-Hanazono  (1428-1464) 
Go-Tsuchimikado  (1464-1500) 
Go-Kashiwabara  (1500-1526) 
Go-Nara  (1526-1557) 
Ogimachi  (1567-1586) 
Go-Yozei  (1587-1611) 
Go-Mizuno-o  (1612-1629) 
Myosho  (1630-1643) 
Go-Komyo  (1643-1654) 
Go-Saiin  (1655-1663) 


115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 


113.  Reigen  (1663-1687) 

114.  Higashiyama  (1687-1709) 
Nakano-mikado  (1709-1735) 
Sakuramachi  (1735-1747) 
Momozono  (1747-1762) 
Go-Sakuramachi  (1762-1770) 
Go-Momozono  (1771-1779) 
Kokaku  (1779-1817) 
Ninko  (1817-1846) 
Komei  (1846-1867) 
Mutsuhito  (1867-1912) 
Yoshihito  (1912-        ) 

N.B.  — Nos.  36  and  38  were  the 
same  empress  ;  likewise  Nos.  47  and 
49. 

We  append  also  a  list  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  "  Northern  Court " 
during  the  separation,  as  follows : 

1.  Kogon  (1331-1333) 

2.  Komyo  (1336-1348) 

3.  Suko  (1349-1352) 

4.  Go-Kogon  (1352-1371) 

5.  Go-Enyu  (1371-1382) 

6.  Go-Komatsu  (1383-1392) 

In  1392  Go-Komatsu  became  em- 
peror over  the  reunited  empire. 


Ministerial  Changes  in  Japan 
The  following  table  shows  the  Cabinet  changes  that  have 
taken  place  since  constitutional  government  was  instituted : 


Premiee. 


Yamagata  .  . 

Matsukata .  . 

Ito     .    .    .  . 

Matsukata  .  . 

Ito     ...  . 
Okuma-Itagaki 

Yamagata  .  . 
Ito     .... 

Katsura     .  . 

Saionji  .     .  . 

Katsura      .  . 

Saionji  .     .  . 

Katsura      .  . 
Yamamoto 


Term  of  Office. 

Yrs. 

Mos. 

Dec.  '89-Apr.   '91 

1 

4 

May   '91-July   '92 

1 

2 

Aug.  '92-Aug.  '96 

4 

0 

Sept.  '96-Dec.    '97 

1 

3 

Jan.    '98-June  '98 

0 

5 

June  '98-Oct.    '98 

0 

4 

Nov.  '98-Sept.  '00 

1 

10 

Oct.    '00-May  '01 

0 

7 

June  '01-Dec.  '05 

4 

6 

Jan.    '06-July  '08 

2 

6 

July   '08-Aug.  '11 

3 

2 

Sept.  '11-Dec.  '12 

1 

3 

Dec.    '12-Feb.  '13 

0 

2 

Feb.    '13- 

In  connection  with  this  table,  we  wish  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  the  average  duration  of  eleven  Minis- 


376   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

tries  is  less  than  two  years ;  and  that  the  average  was 
considerably  raised  by  the  unusual  length  of  the  two 
Ministries  which  covered  the  periods  of  the  wars  with 
China  and  Eussia,  when  political  rivalries  were  buried. 
It  is  quite  probable  that,  if  foreign  wars  had  not  occurred 
to  unify  the  nation,  those  Ministries  would  not  have  had 
a  duration  so  greatly  in  excess  of  the  average,  especially 
as,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  wars,  party  feeling  was  run- 
ning very  high.  In  that  case  the  general  average  would 
have  been  reduced  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
cabinets.  It  should  also  be  noticed  that  three  of  these 
Ministries  (both  Matsukata  and  the  second  Ito)  came  to 
an  end  on  account  of  collision  with  the  Diet,  and  that 
four  Ministries  (the  Kuroda,  the  first  and  third  Ito,  and 
the  first  party  Cabinet  of  Okuma  and  Itagaki)  were 
broken  up  by  internal  dissensions ;  and  the  last  Kat- 
sura  (February,  1913)  was  forced  out  by  popular  revolt. 

Japan's  House  of  Peers 

Among  its  373  members  only  57  sit  by  hereditary 
right;  namely,  14  Princes  of  the  Blood,  13  Princes,  and 
30  Marquises.  Among  the  remaining  members,  150  are 
elected  by  the  Counts,  Viscounts,  and  Barons,  121  are  Im- 
perial nominees, —  that  is  to  say,  men  who  have  earned 
distinction  by  eminent  services  or  attainments,  —  and  45 
represent  the  highest  tax-payers  in  the  prefectures. 

The  Political  Parties  of  Japan* 

The  idea  of  popular  representation  in  the  government 
of  Japan  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  birth  with  the 
Restoration,  although  some  thoughtful  men  had  been 
turning  their  minds  in  that  direction  at  an  earlier  date. 
His  Imperial  Majesty  the  present  Emperor,  in  his  oath 

1  From  summary  of  "  A  Brief  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the 
Political  Parties  in  Japan,"  by  A.  H.  Lay,  in  the  "  Japan  Mail." 


APPENDIX  877 

on  the  occasion  of  Ms  succession  to  the  throne,  made 
known  his  enlightened  desire  that  men  should  meet  in 
council  from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  all  affairs 
of  state  be  determined  in  accordance  with  public 
opinion.  This  pronouncement  may  be  regarded  as  the 
starting-point  of  the  movement  for  parliamentary  repre- 
sentation. The  germ  of  the  present  House  of  Peers  and 
House  of  Representatives  is  found  in  the  Gi-sei,  a 
department  of  the  government  which  was  organized  as 
early  as  June,  1868.  The  Ko-gi-jo,  which  was  opened 
in  the  following  year,  was  representative,  not  of  the 
people,  but  of  the  governing  authorities  in  the  various 
localities.  The  members  of  the  Sa-In,  which  replaced 
the  Ko-gi-jo  (or  Shugi-in)  in  September,  1871,  were 
nominated  by  the  Emperor  and  the  council  of  state. 

The  history  of  political  parties  in  Japan  may  con- 
veniently be  divided  into  four  periods :  (1)  From  the 
Restoration  up  to  1882,  while  as  yet  they  were  in  embryo  ; 
2)  from  the  year  1882,  when  they  for  the  first  time 
took  actual  shape,  until  1888;  (3)  from  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Daido-Danketsu  in  1887  until  1898 ;  (4)  the 
period  since  the  amalgamation  of  the  two  strongest 
parties  to  form  the  constitutional  party  in   1898. 

During  the  early  seventies  discussion  went  on  regard- 
ing the  advisability  of  the  formation  of  a  popular 
assembly.  In  1874  was  formed  the  first  political  society, 
the  Aikoku-tOy  or  patriotic  society,  from  which  later 
sprang  the  Liberal  Party  {Jiyu-to).  In  the  previous 
year  a  division  had  taken  place  in  the  ranks  of  the 
higher  officials  of  the  government.  The  one  party  was 
composed  of  those  who  desired  rapid  progress  in  domestic 
matters  and  a  vigorous  foreign  policy ;  the  other  desired 
steady  progress  at  home  and  conciliation  abroad.  The 
latter  party  retained  control  of  the  government,  and  the 
former  went  into  opposition.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  radical  party  was  Itagaki  of  Kochi  Prefec- 


378    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

ture.  He  organized  the  first  local  society,  and  devoted 
himself  constantly  to  the  attainment  of  his  end  of  bring- 
ing about  parliamentary  institutions  in  the  country. 
We  thus  have  Kochi,  and  later  on  Hizen,  working  for 
the  extension  of  the  power  of  the  people,  while  the 
government  was  in  the  main  conducted  by  Satsuma 
and  Choshu  men. 

The  agitation  for  popular  representation,  although 
checked  for  a  time  by  the  Satsuma  Rebellion,  gained 
strength  in  1879  and  1880,  and  the  government  became 
convinced  that  the  question  could  not  longer  be  post- 
poned. On  the  12th  of  October,  1881,  the  Emperor 
promulgated  the  famous  ordinance  in  which  the  promise 
was  given  that  a  parliament  should  actually  be  established 
in  1890.  As  a  preparatory  measure,  Ito,  in  company 
with  a  number  of  junior  officials,  was  despatched  to 
Europe  early  in  1882  to  study  the  political  systems  of 
the  West.  The  promise  of  a  parliament  served  to  give 
a  more  definite  purpose  to  the  various  political  associa- 
tions, and  the  year  1882  saw  the  formal  organization  of 
the  three  parties  which,  under  various  names,  have  con- 
tinued almost  uninterruptedly  to  occupy  the  field  until 
the  present  time.  The  Jiyu-to  was  the  first  organized, 
although  not  the  first  to  be  properly  registered  as  a 
political  association. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  utterances  of  the  various 
political  parties  when  they  first  came  into  existence 
present  in  the  main  no  features  of  a  distinctive  nature. 
All  put  forth  excellent  doctrines,  but  usually  of  extreme 
vagueness.  The  same  characteristic  has  been  noticeable 
throughout  their  history  except  when  some  temporary 
question  of  urgency  has  arisen.  This  is  no  doubt  the 
reason  why  the  grouping  has  constantly  changed,  one 
merging  into  another,  and  secessions  occurring  without 
apparent  cause.  1883  and  the  following  years  saw  a  fall- 
ing off  in  the  interest  in  political  parties, — doubtless  a 


APPENDIX  379 

natural  result  of  the  over  excitement  wliich  had  just 
preceded,  and  of  the  apparent  certainty  of  a  parliament 
after  1890.  The  interest  in  politics  and  in  parties 
revived,  however,  as  the  date  assigned  for  the  granting 
of  the  constitution  approached. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  first  Diet,  the  efforts  of  the 
parties  have  in  general  been  directed  towards  the  secur- 
ing of  control  of  the  administration,  —  the  establishment 
of  parliamentary  government.  Except  during  the  period 
of  the  war  with  China,  when  all  party  differences  were 
for  the  time  set  aside,  the  parties  have  all  been  in  more  or 
less  constant  opposition  to  the  government.  Until  within 
the  last  year  or  two,  however,  no  party  has  possessed  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time  an  absolute  majority  of 
the  membership  of  the  Lower  House,  sufficient  to  enable 
it  to  control  the  votes  of  that  body.  Political  parties 
have  now  become  a  distinct  power  in  the  land  which  no 
statesman  can  afford  entirely  to  neglect.  From  small 
and  unruly  beginnings,  they  have  gradually  progressed 
in  influence  and  in  organization.  As  by  degrees  they 
have  been  getting  rid  of  their  unruly  and  dangerous 
elements,  and  learning  to  a  greater  extent  the  lesson  of 
responsibility,  they  have  more  and  more  gained  the 
popular  confidence.  Possessing  practically  the  power 
of  the  purse,  —  for  in  the  Diet  the  House  of  Eepresenta- 
tives  has  the  first  say  as  to  the  details  of  the  budget 
presented  by  the  government,  —  they  have  always  to  be 
reckoned  with.  .  .  . 

That  there  have  been  no  distinct  and  well-defined 
party  issues  may  be  traced  to  the  fact  that  feudalism 
gave  place  so  suddenly  to  a  modern  state  of  society. 
The  leaders  of  thought  and  those  who  have  taken  up 
the  work  of  national  rejuvenation  have  all  been  men  of 
progressive  tendencies.  That  the  parties  have  fre- 
quently opposed  the  government  in  cases  where  opposi- 
tion for  its  own  sake   has  been  the  only   recognizable 


380    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

principle  cannot  be  denied.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  they  have  all  along  been  struggling  for  a  share  in 
the  administration.  The  political  parties  have  well 
illustrated  the  intensely  democratic  character  of  the 
Japanese  people  side  by  side  with  marked  reverence  for 
the  Emperor.  The  desire  for  equality  and  the  revolt 
against  the  controlling  influence  of  a  narrow  coterie  has 
all  along  been  exhibited.  .  .  . 

I  ^  may  perhaps  take  this  opportunity  to  mention  two 
characteristics  of  Japanese  political  parties  which  have 
impressed  themselves  upon  me  in  the  course  of  my  own, 
as  yet  comparatively  slight,  study  of  the  politics  of  this 
country.  As  in  so  many  other  aspects  of  Japanese  life, 
so  also  in  politics,  I  think  we  can  see  a  curious  blending 
of  Old  Japan  with  the  very  latest  and  most  advanced 
which  the  West  has  to  offer.  It  was  a  remark  of  the 
most  influential,  if  not  the  greatest,  English  political 
philosopher  of  the  nineteenth  century,  John  Stuart  Mill, 
that,  even  if  we  could  be  assured  that  an  autocrat,  an 
all-powerful  individual  ruler,  would  govern  more  wisely 
than  a  popular  government,  we  ought,  nevertheless,  to 
prefer  the  popular  government  for  the  educative  effect 
which  the  effort  to  govern  produces  upon  the  people. 

Now  it  will  be  found  that  there  has  been  very  much 
conscious  or  unconscious  following  of  this  idea  in  the 
progress  of  popular  government  in  Japan.  In  marked 
contrast  to  the  history  of  popular  government  in  the 
West,  where  parliaments  have  been  forced  on  the 
government  from  below  for  the  protection  of  popular 
rights,  popular  representation  has  been  granted  from 
above  in  this  country,  and  the  people  have  grown  up  to 
it,  or  are  in  process  of  growing.  The  truth  of  this  is 
not  affected  by  the  fact  that  contest  between  rival  clans 
has  been  an  ever  controlling  factor  in  the  domestic 
politics  of  the  country  since  Restoration  days.  The 
1  Professor  GriflSin,  in  discussion  of  Mr.  Lay's  paper. 


APPENDIX  381 

agitation  of  the  parties  has  been  not  so  much  directed 
against  the  measures  of  the  government  as  against  the 
fact  that  the  government  is  not  controlled  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people. 

The  element  of  Old  Japan  in  the  political  parties  is 
seen  in  the  nature  of  political  allegiance.  What  holds 
the  parties  together  is  men  rather  than  measures.  In 
Old  Japan  personal  allegiance  to  one's  feudal  lord  was 
one  of  the  strongest  feelings  of  the  individual,  and 
sufficed  to  give  a  distinct  character  to  the  life  of  the 
time.  The  most  important  elements  of  feudalism,  the 
political  and  economic  organization  of  the  society  which 
was  founded  upon  it,  have  passed  away,  but  the  senti- 
mental part  remains  in  the  personal  allegiance  of  men 
to  their  party  leaders  of  to-day.  What  would  the  Seiyu- 
kai  have  been  without  Prince  Ito,  or  the  Progressive  party 
without  Count  Okuma  ?  No  doubt  other  leaders  would 
be  forthcoming  if  these  were  not  present,  the  names  of 
the  parties  might  be  retained,  but  the  membership  would 
almost  certainly  undergo  enormous  changes. 

Army  Statistics  of  Japan  ^ 

Surgeon-Major  Koike,  in  a  lecture  delivered  before 
the  Medical  Union  in  the  salon  of  the  Musical  College 
in  Uyeno,  gave  some  interesting  figures  relating  to  the 
casualties  in  the  North-China  campaign  as  compared 
with  the  China-Japan  war  of  1894-1895.  These  will  be 
most  easily  understood  by  putting  them  into  tabular 
form. 

Total  number  of  patients  in  the  North-China  campaign      .    22,080 
Total  number  of  deaths  out  of  the  above  aggregate    .     .     .       1,137 

(This,  of  course,  is  exclusive  of  those  killed  in  the 
field;  it  shows  only  the  sick  and  wounded.) 

1  Prom  the  **  Japan  Times." 


382   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Nokth-China 
Cahfaiqn. 


China-Jafan 
Was. 


Percentage  of  deaths 

Number  of  sick  to  each  wounded  man      .     . 
Number  of  deaths  from  sickness  to  each  death 

from  wounds 

Percentage  of  deaths  among  wounded  men   . 
Percentage  of  deiiths  among  diseased  men    . 


5.1 
5.5 

2.3 
3.2 
4.2 


8.1 
4.1 

9.7 
3.9 
8.4 


Return  of  the  Hiroshima  Reserve  Hospital 

NoRTH-CnmA 
Campaign. 
Percentage  of  deaths  among  wounded  men    ...    2.1 
Percentage  of  deaths  among  sick  men 3.3 

Comparative  Figures  {General) 
Total  percentage  of  deaths  among  wounded  men : 

Satsuma  Rebellion 17.0 

China-Japan  War 9.7 

North-China  Campaign 4.6 

Comparative  Figures   Showing  the  Percentage  of  Sick 
during  the  Occupation  of  Peking  in  the  Winter 

Russian  troops    .  .  .  8.75  (typhoid,  dysentery,  syphilis). 

French  troops      .  .  .  5.42  (typhoid,  syphilis). 

German  troops    .  .  .  5.33  (typhoid,  syphilis,  dysentery). 

British  troops      .  .  .  5.22  (sunstroke,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and 

typhoid). 

American  troops  .  .  4.18  (dysentery,  sunstroke,  and  syphilis). 

Japanese  troops  .  .  .  2.51  (kakke  and  typhoid). 

Statistics  of  Russo-Japanese  War.^ 

(Feb.,  1904— May,  1905.) 

Killed  on  field 43,892 

Wounded  with  colors 145,527 

Died  of  those  wounds 9,054 

Sick,  including  wounds,  accidents,  etc.,  not  received  on 

firing-line 162,556 

Died  of  sickness  and  disease 7,433 

Contagious  diseases 10,565 

Died  of  contagious  diseases 4,657 

Killed  and  died  from  wounds 52,946 

Died  from  all  diseases 11,992 

1  From  •'  The  Real  Triumph  of  Japan  "  (Seaman). 


APPENDIX  383 

Japanese  Naval  Increment^ 

Writing  about  naval  increment,  the  ^^NicM  Nichi 
Shimbun"  notes  the  increase  of  the  Japanese  Navy 
during  recent  years  as  follows :  — 

Total  Tonnaob. 

1897 100,000 

1898 134,000 

1899 154,000 

1900 204,000 

1901 232,000 

In  the  immediate  future,  the  total  tonnage  will  be  raised 
to  the  post-helium  figure  of  250,000  tons.^  Everybody 
agrees  that  Japan  must  not  rest  there.  She  has  to  keep 
up  with  the  rapid  additions  made  by  other  countries  to 
their  naval  forces.  That  is  not  a  matter  of  serious 
diflQ.culty  so  far  as  ships  are  concerned :  they  can  always 
be  bought  with  money.  But  the  men  to  man  them  is 
another  problem.  After  the  Restoration  any  number  of 
recruits  were  obtainable  for  the  army,  as  was  natural 
in  a  country  where  a  military  feudalism  had  existed  for 
centuries.  The  navy,  however,  could  not  be  so  easily 
supplied,  maritime  enterprise  having  been  effectually 
checked  under  the  Tokugawa  rule.  Difficulties  about 
seamen  may  now  be  said  to  have  been  overcome.  But 
that  is  not  true  of  officers.  Our  contemporary  here  gives 
the  following  table :  — 

Y  NtTMBKE  OF  Officers  and  Total  Force, 

Men  Actually  Sbsvino.  Including  Rbsebvbs. 

1895 14,463  17,140 

1900 28,308  32,981 

This  shows  an  increment  of  only  100  per  cent,  whereas 
the  increase  of  tonnage  in  the  same  time  was  400  per 
cent.'*    The  great  difficulty  is  to  get  a  supply  of  officers 

i  From  the  **  Japan  Mail." 

2  In  1910,  it  was  more  than  600,000  tons. 

8  In  1908,  it  was  more  than  47,000  men. 


384    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

for  the  lower  ranks  —  midshipmen  aud  lieutenants. 
The  only  college  for  educating  these  officers  is  at  Eda- 
]ima,  where  not  more  than  600  cadets  can  be  accommo- 
dated. There,  then,  a  change  must  be  effected.  It  will 
probably  take  the  form  of  organizing  another  naval  col- 
lege at  Yokosuka,  and  making  arrangements  that  the 
preliminary  education  of  candidates  shall  be  effected  in 
the  middle  schools. 

Japan's  Mercantile  Marine* 

The  "  Tokyo  Keizai "  publishes  some  interesting  statis- 
tics bearing  on  the  development  of  our  mercantile  marine. 
It  was  1870  or  thereabouts  that  the  Japanese  began  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  carrying  trade  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  term,  but  its  growth  was  slow  until  the 
Chinese  War  of  1894-1895.  The  following  table  gives  the 
figures  for  the  eleven  years  from  1892  to  1902  inclusive  : 

Tear.  Tons. 

1892 214,000 

1893 325,000 

1894 320,000 

1895 386,000 

1896 417,000 

1897 486,000 

1898 648,000 

1899 796,000 

1900 863,000 

1901 917,000 

1902 934,000» 

From  the  comparative  statistics  published  by  our  con- 
temporary, it  is  noticed  that,  while  in  1892  our  mer- 
cantile fleet  was  the  thirteenth  in  the  world  in  point  of 
tonnage,  it  had  risen  by  1901  to  the  eighth  position. 
It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  it  is  rapidly  coming  up 
to  the  same  relative  status  as  that  occupied  by  our  naval 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Times." 

2  In  1910,  it  was  more  than  1,600,000  tons. 


m 


m 


APPENDIX  385 

fleet  whose  position  is  the  seventh  among  the  navies  of 
the  world  .^ 


Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Navigation  between 
Japan  and  the  United  States  of  America 

Signed  at  Washington,  22nd  day  of  the  11th  month,  27th  year  of  Meiji. 
Ratifications  exchanged  at  that  City,  21st  day  of  the  3rd  month,  28th  year 
of  Meiji. 

His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan  and  the  President 
of  the  United  States  of  America  being  equally  desirous 
of  maintaining  the  relations  of  good  understanding  which 
happily  exist  between  them,  by  extending  and  increasing 
the  intercourse  between  their  respective  States,  and 
being  convinced  that  this  object  cannot  better  be  accom- 
plished than  by  revising  the  Treaties  hitherto  existing 
between  the  two  countries,  have  resolved  to  complete 
such  a  revision,  based  upon  principles  of  equity  and 
mutual  benefit,  and,  for  that  purpose,  have  named  as 
their  Plenipotentiaries,  that  is  to  say :  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor  of  Japan,  Jushii  Shinichiro  Kurino,  of  the 
Order  of  the  Sacred  Treasure  of  the  Fourth  Class,  and 
the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Walter 
Q.  Gresham,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States; 
who,  after  having  communicated  to  each  other  their  full 
jjowers,  found  to  be  in  good  and  due  form,  have  agreed 
upon  and  concluded  the  following  Articles  :  — 

Art.  I.  —  The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the  two 
High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have  full  liberty  to 
enter,  travel,  or  reside  in  any  part  of  the  territories  of 
the  other  Contracting  Party,  and  shall  enjoy  full  and 
perfect  protection  for  their  persons  and  property. 

They  shall  have  free  access  to  the  Courts  of  Justice 

1  See  also  Elgar's  paper  on  "Japanese  Shipping"  in  the 
Transactions  Japan  Society,   London. 

26 


386   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN" 

in  pursuit  and  defence  of  their  rights ;  they  shall  be 
at  liberty  equally  with  native  subjects  or  citizens  to 
choose  and  employ  lawyers,  advocates,  and  representa- 
tives to  pursue  and  defend  their  rights  before  such 
Courts,  and  in  all  other  matters  connected  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  they  shall  enjoy  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  enjoyed  by  native  subjects  or  citizens. 

In  whatever  relates  to  rights  of  residence  and  travel ; 
to  the  possession  of  goods  and  effects  of  any  kind ;  to 
the  succession  to  personal  estate,  by  will  or  otherwise, 
and  the  disposal  of  property  of  any  sort  and  in  any 
manner  whatsoever  which  they  may  lawfully  acquire,  the 
subjects  or  citizens  of  each  Contracting  Party  shall 
enjoy  in  the  territories  of  the  other  the  same  privileges, 
liberties,  and  rights,  and  shall  be  subject  to  no  higher 
imposts  or  charges  in  those  respects  than  native  sub- 
jects or  citizens,  or  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  most 
favoured  nation.  The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the 
Contracting  Parties  shall  enjoy  in  the  territories  of 
the  other  entire  liberty  of  conscience,  and,  subject  to  the 
laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations,  shall  enjoy  the  right 
of  private  or  public  exercise  of  their  worship,  and  also 
the  right  of  burying  their  respective  countrymen  accord- 
ing to  their  religious  customs,  in  such  suitable  and  con- 
venient places  as  may  be  established  and  maintained  for 
that  purpose. 

They  shall  not  be  compelled,  under  any  pretext  what- 
soever, to  pay  any  charges  or  taxes  other  or  higher  than 
those  that  are,  or  may  be,  paid  by  native  subjects  or 
citizens,  or  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  most  favoured 
nation. 

The  subjects  or  citizens  of  either  of  the  Contracting 
Parties  residing  in  the  territories  of  the  other  shall  be 
exempted  from  all  compulsory  military  service  whatso- 
ever, whether  in  the  army,  navy,  national  guard,  or 
militia ;  from  all  contribution  imposed  in  lieu  of  personal 


APPENDIX  387 

service ;  and  from  all  forced  loans  or  military  exactions 
or  contributions. 

Art.  II.  —  There  shall  be  reciprocal  f reedom'of  com- 
merce and  navigation  between  the  territories  of  the  two 
High  Contracting  Parties. 

The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the  Contracting 
Parties  may  trade  in  any  part  of  the  territories  of  the 
other  by  wholesale  or  retail  in  all  kinds  of  produce, 
manufactures,  and  merchandize  of  lawful  commerce, 
either  in  person  or  by  agents,  singly  or  in  partnerships 
with  foreigners  or  native  subjects  or  citizens ;  and  they 
may  there  own  or  hire  and  occupy  houses,  manufactories, 
warehouses,  shops,  and  premises  which  may  be  neces- 
sary for  them,  and  lease  land  for  residential  and  com- 
mercial purposes,  conforming  themselves  to  the  laws, 
police  and  customs  regulations  of  the  country  like  native 
subjects  or  citizens. 

They  shall  have  liberty  freely  to  come  with  their 
ships  and  cargoes  to  all  places,  ports,  and  rivers  in  the 
territories  of  the  other,  which  are  or  may  be  opened  to 
foreign  commerce,  and  shall  enjoy,  respectively,  the 
same  treatment  in  matters  of  commerce  and  navigation 
as  native  subjects  or  citizens,  or  subjects  or  citizens  of 
the  most  favoured  nation  without  having  to  pay  taxes, 
imposts,  or  duties,  of  whatever  nature  or  under  whatever 
denomination  levied  in  the  name  or  for  the  profit  of  the 
Government,  public  functionaries,  private  individuals, 
corporations,  or  establishments  of  any  kind,  other  or 
greater  than  those  paid  by  native  subjects  or  citizens 
or  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  most  favoured  nation. 

It  is,  however,  understood  that  the  stipulations  con- 
tained in  this  and  the  preceding  Article  do  not  in  any 
way  affect  the  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  with 
regard  to  trade,  the  immigration  of  labourers,  police  and 
public  security  which  are  in  force  or  which  may  here- 
after be  enacted  in  either  of  the  two  countries. 


388   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Art.  III.  —  The  dwellings,  manufactories,  warehouses, 
and  shops  of  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the  High 
Contracting  Parties  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  and 
all  premises  appertaining  thereto  destined  for  purposes 
of  residence  or  commerce,  shall  be  respected. 

It  shall  not  be  allowable  to  proceed  to  make  a  search 
of,  or  a  domiciliary  visit  to,  such  dwellings  and  premises, 
or  to  examine  or  inspect  books,  papers,  or  accounts, 
except  under  the  conditions  and  with  the  forms  pre- 
scribed by  the  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  for 
subjects  or  citizens  of  the  country. 

Art.  IV.  — No  other  or  higher  duties  shall  be  imposed 
on  the  importation  into  the  territories  of  the  United 
States  of  any  article,  the  produce  or  manufacture  of  the 
territories  of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  from 
whatever  place  arriving ;  and  no  other  or  higher  duties 
shall  be  imposed  on  the  importation  into  the  territories 
of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan  of  any  article,  the 
produce  or  manufacture  of  the  United  States,  from  what- 
ever place  arriving  than  on  the  like  article  produced  or 
manufactured  in  any  other  foreign  country ;  nor  shall  any 
prohibition  be  maintained  or  imposed  on  the  importation 
of  any  article,  the  produce  or  manufacture  of  the  terri- 
tories of  either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties,  into  the 
territories  of  the  other,  from  whatever  place  arriving, 
which  shall  not  equally  extend  to  the  importation  of  the 
like  article,  being  the  produce  or  manufacture  of  any 
other  country.  This  last  provision  is  not  applicable  to 
the  sanitary  and  other  prohibitions  occasioned  by  the 
necessity  of  protecting  the  safety  of  persons,  or  of  cattle, 
or  plants  useful  to  agriculture. 

Art.  V.  — No  other  or  higher  duties  or  charges  shall 
be  imposed  in  the  territories  of  either  of  the  High  Con- 
tracting Parties  on  the  exportation  of  any  article  to  the 
territories  of  the  other  than  such  as  are,  or  may  be,  pay- 
able on  the  exportation  of  the  like  article  to  any  other 


APPENDIX  389 

foreign  country;  nor  shall  any  prohibition  be  imposed 
on  the  exportation  of  any  article  from  the  territories  of 
either  of  the  two  High  Contracting  Parties  to  the  terri- 
tories of  the  other  which  shall  not  equally  extend  to  the 
exportation  of  the  like  article  to  any  other  country. 

Art.  VT.  —  The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  shall  enjoy  in  the  territories 
of  the  other  exemption  from  all  transit  duties,  and  a 
perfect  equality  of  treatment  with  native  subjects  or 
citizens  in  all  that  relates  to  warehousing,  bounties,  and 
drawbacks. 

Art.  YII.  —  All  articles  which  are  or  may  be  legally 
imported  into  the  ports  of  the  territories  of  His  Majesty 
the  Emperor  of  Japan  in  Japanese  vessels  may  likewise 
be  imported  into  those  ports  in  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  without  being  liable  to  any  other  or  higher  duties 
or  charges  of  whatever  denomination  than  if  such  articles 
were  imported  in  Japanese  vessels ;  and,  reciprocally, 
all  articles  which  are,  or  may  be,  legally  imported  into 
the  ports  of  the  territories  of  the  United  States  in  vessels 
of  the  United  States  may  likewise  be  imported  into 
those  ports  in  Japanese  vessels,  without  being  liable  to 
any  other  or  higher  duties  or  charges  of  whatever  de- 
nomination than  if  such  articles  were  imported  in  vessels 
of  the  United  States.  Such  reciprocal  equality  of  treat- 
ment shall  take  effect  without  distinction,  whether  such 
articles  come  directly  from  the  place  of  origin  or  from 
any  other  place. 

In  the  same  manner,  there  shall  be  perfect  equality 
of  treatment  in  regard  to  exportation,  so  that  the  same 
export  duties  shall  be  paid,  and  the  same  bounties  and 
drawbacks  allowed,  in  the  territories  of  either  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  on  the  exportation  of  any 
article  which  is  or  may  be  legally  exported  therefrom, 
whether  such  exportation  shall  take  place  in  Japanese 
vessels  or  in  vessels  of  the  United  States,  and  whatever 


390        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

may  be  the  place  of  destination,  whether  a  port  of  either 
of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  or  of  any  third  Power. 

Art.  VIII.  —  No  duties  of  tonnage,  harbour,  pilotage, 
lighthouse,  quarantine,  or  other  similar  or  corresponding 
duties  of  whatever  nature,  or  under  whatever  denomina- 
tion levied  in  the  name  or  for  the  profit  of  Government, 
public  functionaries,  private  individuals,  corporations, 
or  establishments  of  any  kind,  shall  be  imposed  in  the 
ports  of  the  territories  of  either  country  upon  the  vessels 
of  the  other  country  which  shall  not  equally  and  under 
the  same  conditions  be  imposed  in  the  like  cases  on 
national  vessels  in  general  or  vessels  of  the  most  favoured 
nation.  Such  equality  of  treatment  shall  apply  recipro- 
cally to  the  respective  vessels,  from  whatever  port  or 
place  they  may  arrive,  and  whatever  may  be  their  place 
of  destination. 

Art.  IX.  —  In  all  that  regards  the  stationing,  loading, 
and  unloading  of  vessels  in  the  ports,  basins,  docks, 
roadsteads,  harbours,  or  rivers  of  the  territories  of  the 
two  countries,  no  privilege  shall  be  granted  to  national 
vessels  which  shall  not  be  equally  granted  to  vessels  of 
the  other  country ;  the  intention  of  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  being  that  in  this  respect  also  the  respective  ves- 
sels shall  be  treated  on  the  footing  of  perfect  equality. 

Art.  X.  —  The  coasting  trade  of  both  the  High  Con- 
tracting Parties  is  excepted  from  the  provisions  of  the 
present  Treaty,  and  shall  be  regulated  according  to 
the  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  of  Japan  and  of  the 
United  States,  respectively.  It  is,  however,  understood 
that  Japanese  subjects  in  the  territories  of  the  United 
States  and  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  the  territories 
of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan  shall  enjoy  in  this 
respect  the  rights  which  are,  or  may  be,  granted  under 
such  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  to  the  subjects 
or  citizens  of  any  other  country. 

A  Japanese  vessel  laden  in  a  foreign  country  with 


APPENDIX  391 

cargo  destined  for  two  or  more  ports  in  the  territories 
of  the  United  States  and  a  vessel  of  the  United  States 
laden  in  a  foreign  country  with  cargo  destined  for  two 
or  more  ports  in  the  territories  of  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor  of  Japan,  may  discharge  a  portion  of  her  cargo 
at  one  port,  and  continue  her  voyage  to  the  other  port 
or  ports  of  destination  where  foreign  trade  is  permitted, 
for  the  purpose  of  landing  the  remainder  of  her  original 
cargo  there,  subject  always  to  the  laws  and  custom-house 
regulations  of  the  two  countries. 

The  Japanese  Government,  however,  agrees  to  allow 
vessels  of  the  United  States  to  continue,  as  heretofore, 
for  the  period  of  the  duration  of  this  Treaty,  to  carry 
cargo  between  the  existing  open  ports  of  the  Empire, 
excepting  to  or  from  the  ports  of  Osaka,  Niigata,  and 
Ebisuminato. 

Art.  XI. — Any  ship-of-war  or  merchant  vessel  of 
either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  which  may  be 
compelled  by  stress  of  weather,  or  by  reason  of  any 
other  distress,  to  take  shelter  in  a  port  of  the  other, 
shall  be  at  liberty  to  refit  therein,  to  procure  all  neces- 
sary supplies,  and  to  put  to  sea  again,  without  paying 
any  dues  other  than  such  as  would  be  payable  by  national 
vessels.  In  case,  however,  the  master  of  a  merchant 
vessel  should  be  under  the  necessity  of  disposing  of  a 
part  of  his  cargo  in  order  to  defray  the  expenses,  she 
shall  be  bound  to  conform  to  the  regulations  and  tariffs 
of  the  place  to  which  he  may  have  come. 

If  any  ship-of-war  or  merchant  vessel  of  one  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  should  run  aground  or  be 
wrecked  upon  the  coasts  of  the  other,  the  local  authori- 
ties shall  inform  the  Consul-G-eneral,  Consul,  Vice-Consul, 
or  Consular  Agent  of  the  district  of  occurrence,  or,  if 
there  be  no  such  Consular  officers,  they  shall  inform  the 
Consul-General,  Consul,  Vice-Consul,  or  Consular  Agent 
of  the  nearest  district. 


392   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

All  proceedings  relative  to  the  salvage  of  Japanese 
vessels  wrecked  or  cast  on  shore  in  the  territorial  waters 
of  the  United  States  shall  take  place  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  the  United  States;  and,  reciprocally,  all 
measures  of  salvage  relative  to  vessels  of  the  United 
States  wrecked  or  cast  on  shore  in  the  territorial  waters  of 
His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan  shall  take  place  in 
accordance  with  the  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  of 
Japan. 

Such  stranded  or  wrecked  ship  or  vessel,  and  all  parts 
thereof,  and  all  furnitures  and  appurtenances  belonging 
thereunto,  and  all  goods  and  merchandize  saved  there- 
from, including  those  which  may  have  been  cast  into  the 
sea,  or  the  proceeds  thereof,  if  sold,  as  well  as  all  papers 
found  on  board  such  stranded  or  wrecked  ship  or  vessel, 
shall  be  given  up  to  the  owners  or  their  agents,  when 
claimed  by  them.  If  such  owners  or  agents  are  not  on 
the  spot,  the  same  shall  be  delivered  to  the  respective 
Consuls-General,  Consuls,  Vice-Consuls,  or  Consular 
Agents  upon  being  claimed  by  them  within  the  period 
fixed  by  the  laws,  ordinances,  and  regulations  of  the 
country,  and  such  Consular  officers,  owners,  or  agents 
shall  pay  only  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  preservation 
of  the  property,  together  with  the  salvage  or  other  ex- 
penses which  would  have  been  payable  in  the  case  of  a 
wreck  of  a  national  vessel. 

The  goods  and  merchandize  saved  from  the  wreck 
shall  be  exempt  from  all  the  duties  of  the  Customs  un- 
less cleared  for  consumption,  in  which  case  they  shall 
pay  the  ordinary  duties. 

When  a  ship  or  vessel  belonging  to  the  subjects  or 
citizens  of  one  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  is 
stranded  or  wrecked  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  the 
respective  Consuls-General,  Consuls,  Vice-Consuls,  and 
Consular  Agents  shall  be  authorized,  in  case  the  owner 
or  master,  or  other  agent  of  the  owner,  is  not  present,  to 


APPENDIX  393 

lend  their  official  assistance  in  order  to  afford  the 
necessary  assistance  to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  re- 
spective States.  The  same  rule  shall  apply  in  case  the 
owner,  master,  or  other  agent  is  present,  but  requires 
such  assistance  to  be  given. 

Abt.  XII.  —  All  vessels  which,  according  to  Japanese 
law,  are  to  be  deemed  Japanese  vessels,  and  all  vessels 
which,  according  to  United  States  law,  are  to  be  deemed 
vessels  of  the  United  States,  shall,  for  the  purposes  of 
this  Treaty,  be  deemed  Japanese  vessels  and  vessels  of 
the  United  States,  respectively. 

Art.  XIII.  —  The  Consuls-General,  Consuls,  Vice- 
Consular  Agents  of  each  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties, 
residing  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  shall  receive  from 
the  local  authorities  such  assistance  as  can  by  law  be 
given  to  them  for  the  recovery  of  deserters  from  the 
vessels  of  their  respective  countries. 

It  is  understood  that  this  stipulation  shall  not  apply 
to  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  country  where  the 
desertion  takes  place. 

Art.  XIY.  —  The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree 
that,  in  all  that  concerns  commerce  and  navigation  any 
privilege,  favour,  or  immunity  which  either  High  Con- 
tracting Party  has  actually  granted,  or  may  hereafter 
grant,  to  the  Government,  ships,  subjects,  or  citizens  of 
any  other  State,  shall  be  extended  to  the  Government, 
ships,  subjects,  or  citizens  of  the  other  High  Contract- 
ing Party,  gratuitously,  if  the  concession  in  favour  of 
that  other  State  shall  have  been  gratuitous,  and  on  the 
same  or  equivalent  conditions  if  the  concession  shall 
have  been  conditional ;  it  being  their  intention  that  the 
trade  and  navigation  of  each  country  shall  be  placed,  in 
all  respects,  by  the  other  on  the  footing  of  the  most 
favoured  nation. 

Art.  XV.  —  Each  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties 
may   appoint    Consuls- General,    Consuls,   Vice-Consuls, 


394        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Pro-Consuls,  and  Consular  Agents,  in  all  the  ports,  cities, 
and  places  of  the  other  except  in  those  where  it  may  not 
be  convenient  to  recognize  such  officers. 

This  exception,  however,  shall  not  be  made  in  regard 
to  one  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  without  being 
made  likewise  in  regard  to  every  other  Power. 

The  Consuls-General,  Consuls,  Vice-Consuls,  Pro-Con- 
suls, and  Consular  Agents  may  exercise  all  functions, 
and  shall  enjoy  all  privileges,  exemptions,  and  immuni- 
ties which  are,  or  may  hereafter  be,  granted  to  Consular 
officers  of  the  most  favoured  nation. 

Art.  XVI.  —  The  subjects  or  citizens  of  each  of  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  shall  enjoy  in  the  territories 
of  the  other  the  same  protection  as  native  subjects  or 
citizens  in  regard  to  patents,  trademarks,  and  designs, 
upon  fulfilment  of  the  formalities  prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  XVII.  —  The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  to 
the  following  arrangement :  — 

The  several  Foreign  Settlements  in  Japan  shall,  from 
the  date  this  Treaty  comes  into  force,  be  incorporated 
with  the  respective  Japanese  communes,  and  shall 
thenceforth  form  part  of  the  general  municipal  system 
of  Japan.  The  competent  Japanese  authorities  shall 
thereupon  assume  all  municipal  obligations  and  duties 
in  respect  thereof,  and  the  common  funds  and  property, 
if  any,  belonging  to  such  Settlements  shall  at  the  same 
time  be  transferred  to  the  said  Japanese  authorities. 

When  such  incorporation  takes  place,  existing  leases 
in  perpetuity  upon  which  property  is  now  held  in  the 
said  Settlements  shall  be  confirmed,  and  no  conditions 
whatever  other  than  those  contained  in  such  existing 
leases  shall  be  imposed  in  respect  of  such  property.  It 
is,  however,  understood  that  the  Consular  Authorities 
mentioned  in  the  same  are  in  all  cases  to  be  replaced  by 
the  Japanese  Authorities.  All  lands  which  may  pre- 
viously have  been  granted  by  the  Japanese  Grovernraent 


APPENDIX  395 

free  of  rent  for  the  public  purposes  of  the  said  Settls- 
ments  shall,  subject  to  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  b^ 
permanently  reserved  free  of  all  taxes  and  charges  foy 
the  public  purposes  for  which  they  were  originally  set 
apart. 

Art.  XVIII.  —  The  present  Treaty  shall,  from  the 
date  it  comes  into  force,  be  substituted  in  place  of  the 
Treaty  of  Peace  and  Amity  concluded  on  the  3rd  day  of 
the  3rd  month  of  the  7th  year  of  Kayei  corresponding 
to  the  31st  day  of  March,  1854;  the  Treaty  of  Amity 
and  Commerce  concluded  on  the  19th  day  of  the  6th 
month  of  the  5th  year  of  Ansei,  corresponding  to  the 
29th  day  of  July,  1858  ;  the  Tariff  Convention  concluded 
on  the  13th  day  of  the  5th  month  of  the  2nd  year  of 
Keio,  corresponding  to  the  25th  day  of  June,  1866 ;  the 
Convention  concluded  on  the  25th  day  of  the  7th  month 
of  the  11th  year  of  Meiji,  corresponding  to  the  25th 
day  of  July,  1878,  and  all  Arrangements  and  Agreements 
subsidiary  thereto  concluded  or  existing  between  the 
High  Contracting  Parties,  and  from  the  same  date  such 
Treaties,  Conventions,  Arrangements,  and  Agreements 
shall  cease  to  be  binding,  and  in  consequence,  the  juris- 
diction then  exercised  by  Courts  of  the  United  States  in 
Japan  and  all  the  exceptional  privileges,  exemptions, 
and  immunities  then  enjoyed  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States  as  a  part  of,  or  appurtenant  to,  such  jurisdiction, 
shall  absolutely  and  without  notice  cease  and  determine, 
and  thereafter  all  such  jurisdiction  shall  be  assumed  and 
exercised  by  Japanese  Courts. 

Art.  XIX.  —  This  Treaty  shall  go  into  operation  on 
the  17th  day  of  July,  1899,  and  shall  remain  in  force 
for  the  period  of  twelve  years  from  that  date. 

Either  High  Contracting  Party  shall  have  the  right, 
at  any  time  after  eleven  years  shall  have  elapsed  from 
the  date  it  goes  into  operation,  to  give  notice  to  the 
other  of  its  intention  to  terminate  the  same,  and  at  the 


396   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

expiration  of  twelve  months  after  such  notice  is  given 
this  Treaty  shall  wholly  cease  and  determine. 

Art.  XX.  —  This  Treaty  shall  be  ratified  and  the 
ratifications  thereof  shall  be  exchanged  at  Tokyo  or 
Washington  as  soon  as  possible,  and  not  later  than  six 
months  after  its  signature. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  the  present  Treaty  in  duplicate  and  have 
thereunto  affixed  their  seals. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington  the  22nd  day  of  the 
11th  month  of  the  27th  year  of  Meiji,  corresponding  to 
the  22nd  day  of  November  in  the  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-fourth  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

(Signed)       Shinichiro  Kurino.  (L.  S.) 

Walter  Q.  Gresham.  (L.  S.) 

[Amendment  to  the  Foregoing  Treaty  Proposed  by  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  of  America  and  Ratified  with  the  Treaty.] 

Art.  XIX.  —  Clause  2,  after  the  word  "  time  "  insert 
the  word  "thereafter"  and  strike  out  all  after  the  word 
^'time"  down  to  and  including  the  word  '^operation," 
so  that  the  clause  will  read  :  "  Either  High  Contracting 
Party  shall  have  the  right,  at  any  time  thereafter,  to 
give  notice  to  the  other  of  its  intention  to  terminate  the 
same,  and  at  the  expiration  of  twelve  months  after  such 
notice  is  given  this  Treaty  shall  wholly  cease  and 
determine." 

Protocol 

The  Grovernment  of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of 
Japan  and  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  deeming  it  advisable  in  the  interests  of  both 
Countries  to  regulate  certain  special  matters  of  mutual 
concern,  apart  from  the  Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Nav- 
igation signed  this  day,  have,  through  their  respec- 
tive Plenipotentiaries,  agreed  upon  the  following 
stipulations  :  — 


APPENDIX  397 

1.  —  It  is  agreed  by  the  Contracting  Parties  that  one 
month  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the 
Treaty  of  Commerce  and  Navigation  signed  this  day, 
the  Import  Tariff  now  in  operation  in  Japan  in  respect 
of  goods  and  merchandize  imported  into  Japan  by  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  shall  cease  to  be  binding. 
From  the  same  date  the  General  Statutory  Tariff  of 
Japan,  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  Article  IX.  of 
the  Treaty  of  March  31,  1854,  at  present  subsisting 
between  the  Contracting  Parties,  so  long  as  said  Treaty 
remains  in  force,  and  thereafter,  subject  to  the  provis- 
ions of  Article  IV.  and  Article  XIY.,  of  the  Treaty 
signed  this  day,  be  applicable  to  goods  and  merchan- 
dize, being  the  growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the 
territories  of  the  United  States  upon  importation  into 
Japan. 

But  nothing  contained  in  this  Protocol  shall  be  held 
to  limit  or  qualify  the  right  of  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment to  restrict  or  to  prohibit  the  importation  of  adul- 
terated drugs,  medicines,  food,  or  beverages  ;  indecent  or 
obscene  prints,  paintings,  books,  cards,  lithographic  or 
other  engravings,  photographs  or  any  other  indecent 
or  obscene  articles ;  articles  in  violation  of  patent,  trade- 
mark, or  copyright  laws  of  Japan  ;  or  any  other  article 
which  for  sanitary  reasons  or  in  view  of  public  security 
or  morals,  might  offer  any  danger. 

2.  —  The  Japanese  Government,  pending  the  open- 
ing of  the  country  to  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
agrees  to  extend  the  existing  passport  system  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  allow  citizens  of  the  United  States,  on 
the  production  of  a  certificate  of  recommendation  from 
the  Representative  of  the  United  States  at  Tokio,  or 
from  any  of  the  Consuls  of  the  United  States  at  the 
open  ports  in  Japan,  to  obtain  upon  application  pass- 
ports available  for  any  part  of  the  country  and  for  any 
period  not  exceeding  twelve  months,  from  the  Imperial 


398   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

Japanese  Foreign  Office  in  Tokio,  or  from  the  Chief 
Authorities  in  the  Prefecture  in  which  an  open  port  is 
situated,  it  being  understood  that  the  existing  Rules 
and  Regulations  governing  citizens  of  the  United 
States  who  visit  the  interior  of  the  Empire  are  to  be 
maintained. 

3.  —  The  undersigned  Plenipotentiaries  have  agreed 
that  this  Protocol  shall  be  submitted  to  the  two  High 
Contracting  Parties  at  the  same  time  as  the  Treaty  of 
Commerce  and  Navigation  signed  this  day,  and  that 
when  the  said  Treaty  is  ratified  the  agreements  con- 
tained in  the  Protocol  shall  also  equally  be  considered 
as  approved,  without  the  necessity  of  a  further  formal 
ratification. 

It  is  agreed  that  this  Protocol  shall  terminate  at  the 
same  time  the  said  Treaty  ceases  to  be  binding. 

In  witness  whereof  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  the  same  and  have  affixed  thereto  their 
seals. 

Done  at  Washington  the  22nd  day  of  the  11th  month 
of  the  27th  year  of  3Ieiji,  corresponding  to  the  22nd 
November,  in  the  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-fourth 
year  of  the  Christian  era. 

(Signed)       Shinichiro  Kurino.  (L.  S.) 
Walter  Q.  Gresham.  (L.  S.) 

Imperial  Rescript  on  the  New  Treaties 

Governing  Our  realm  by  the  abiding  aid  of  Our 
ancestors'  achievements,  which  have  enabled  Us  to 
secure  the  prosperity  of  Our  people  at  home  and  to 
establish  relations  of  close  amity  with  the  nations 
abroad,  it  is  a  source  of  heartfelt  gratification  to  Us  that, 
in  the  sequel  of  exhaustive  planning  and  repeated  nego- 
tiations, an  agreement  has  been  come  to  with  the  Powers, 
and  the  revision  of  the  Treaties,  Our  long  cherished  aim, 


APPENDIX  399 

is  to-day  on  the  eve  of  becoming  an  accomplished  fact ; 
a  result  which,  while  it  adds  materially  to  the  responsi- 
bilities of  Our  empire,  will  greatly  strengthen  the  basis 
of  Our  friendship  with  foreign  countries. 

It  is  Our  earnest  wish  that  Our  subjects,  whose 
devoted  loyalty  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  is  con- 
spicuous, should  enter  earnestly  into  Our  sentiments  in 
this  matter,  and,  in  compliance  with  the  great  policy 
of  opening  the  country,  should  all  unite  with  one  heart 
to  associate  cordially  with  the  peoples  from  afar,  thus 
maintaining  the  character  of  the  nation  and  enhancing 
the  prestige  of  the  empire. 

In  view  of  the  responsibilities  that  devolve  upon  Us 
in  giving  effect  to  the  new  Treaties,  it  is  Our  will  that 
Our  Ministers  of  State,  acting  on  Our  behalf,  should 
instruct  Our  officials  of  all  classes  to  observe  the  utmost 
circumspection  in  the  management  of  affairs,  to  the  end 
that  subjects  and  strangers  alike  may  enjoy  equal 
privileges  and  advantages,  and  that,  every  source  of 
dissatisfaction  being  avoided,  relations  of  peace  and 
amity  with  all  nations  may  be  strengthened  and  con- 
solidated in  perpetuity. 

(Imperial  Sign  Manual.) 

(Signatures  of  all  the  Cabinet  Ministers.) 

(Dated)  June  30th,  1899. 

Schools  in  Japan  ^ 

"The  latest  returns  compiled  by  the  educational 
authorities  show  that  education  in  Japan  is  in  a  satis- 
factory condition.  For  instance  the  percentage  of  the 
children  newly  admitted  to  primary  schools  throughout 
the  country  out  of  every  100  of  those  who  had  attained 
the  school-going  age  last  month  [March,  1903]  was  93.78 
for  boys,  81.08  for  girls,  and  88.05  for  boys  and  girls 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Times." 


400        A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS,  ETC. 

By  the  government  establishments  are  meant  all  institutions  under  the 
control  of  the  Department  of  Education. 

Statistical  items  relating  to  the  Higher  Normal  School  for  Females  are 


No.  or  Schools. 

INSTRUCTOHS    AND 

Tbachbbs. 

^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Elementary  schools  .     . 
Bhnd  and  dumb  schools 
Normal  schools    .     .     . 
Higher  normal  schools 
Middle  schools     .     .     . 
Higher  female  schools 
Higher  schools 

2 

1 

2 
1 
1 

7 
2 
3 
9 

26,485 

1 

52 

'   183 
44 

'  *  *4 
265 
122 

369 
9 

*  '34 

7 

'  '4*1 

23 

1,195 

26,856 

11 

52 

2 

218 

52 

7 

2 

48 

297 

1,317 

31 
15 

*ii6 
22 

19 
345 
291 
128 
238 

91,767 

15 

958 

1,101 
25 

3,067 
525 

659 
114 

Imperial  universities 

Special  schools     .     .     . 
Technical  schools      .     . 
Miscellaneous  schools    . 

81 

1,382 

90 

734 

137 

4,273 

Total 

28 

27,156 

1,678 

28,862 

1,199 

97,885 

7,043 

1899 
1898 
1897 
1896 

27 
22 
22 
2J 

27,051 
26,799 
26,753 
26,621 

1,639 
1,600 
1,677 
1,762 

28,717 
28,421 
28,452 
28,404 

1,128 
983 
913 
785 

92,286 
86,634 
81,632 
77,720 

6,692 
5,346 
5,310 
5,509 

together,  which  show  respectively  an  increase  of  3.23, 
9.18,  and  6.38  against  the  figures  for  last  year.  Again, 
the  different  schools  throughout  the  country  totalled 
29,335,  while  the  teachers  totalled  110,104,  the  attend- 
ance 5,265,006,  and  the  graduates  911,621,  representing 
respectively  an  increase  of  473;  11,977;  339,333;  and 
112,737  as  compared  with  the  figures  for  the  preceding 
year.  [In  1909-10,  these  totals  were  34,659;  172, 228 j 
7,170,470;  and  899,288.] 


APPENDIX 


401 


IN  JAPAN  IN  1900-1901.1 

included  among  those  for  the  Higher  Normal  School,  and  those  relating  to 
the  three  institutes  for  the  training  of  technical  teachers  among  those  for 
technical  schools. 


Students  and  Pitpils. 

Graduates. 

1 

i 

1 

1 

i 

1 

■< 

i 

92,899 
55 
958 
110 
3,748 
658 
345 

1,124 
231 

*  803 
321 
306 

5,684 

3,240 
968 

1,730 

4,622,930 

196 

15,639 

'  64,051 
9,746 

59,544 
194 

'l3,943 
1,932 

4,683,598 

621 

15,639 

803 

78,315 

11,984 

5,684 

3,240 

13,400 

27,455 

84,934 

318 
14 

180 

40 

91 

1,019 

633 

138 

349 

736,907 

8 

7,323 

'  5,584 
1,832 

*  '  210 

4,406 

721 

8,580 
12 

2,163 
637 

i,687 

249 

15,783 

745,805 
34 
7,323 
180 
7,787 
2,560 
1,019 

291 

943 

1,757 

4,363 

'  ■l,*447 

23,599 

4,817 

'l6,985 

2,126 

80,117 

633 

2,035 

5,004 

16,504 

106,127 

14,407 

4,742,425 

168,841 

4,925,673 

2,782 

756,991 

29,111 

788,884 

100,106 
92,963 
87,855 
84,014 

13,230 

11,788 

10,839 

9,321 

4,339,490 
4,086,323 
4,005,164 
3,872,794 

160,614 
149,230 
152,714 
148,858 

4,513,334 
4,247,341 
4,168,717 
4,030,973 

2,454 
2,129 
2,146 
1,819 

655,112 

600,528 
550,738 
507,969 

27,201 
23,486 
20,912 
20,419 

684,767 
626,143 
573.796 
530,207 

Japan's  University  for  Women  ^ 

The  most  remarkable  occurrence  in  Japan  in  the  open- 
ing year  of  the  Twentieth  Century  was  the  establish- 
ment of  a  University  for  Women.  What  does  this 
mean  ?  It  means  that  the  Twentieth  Century  is  to  be 
the  century  for  women  in  Japan  and  perhaps  in  other 
parts  of  the  Orient,  just  as  the  Nineteenth  Century  was 
the  century  for  women  in  the  Occident.     This  new  Uni- 

1  From  28th  Annual  Report  of  the  Minister  of  State  for  Education. 

2  Condensed  from  '*  The  Chautauquan,"  April,  1902. 

26 


402   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

versity  will  be  the  centre  of  woman's  activity,  social, 
educational,  economical  (and  perhaps  political  ?),  in  the 
future  in  Japan. 

About  ten  years  ago  Mr.  Naruse  began  to  think  about 
establishing  a  university  for  girls  and  went  to  America 
to  inspect  female  institutions  of  learning.  There  he 
spent  three  years  going  about  from  place  to  place,  and 
thus  made  a  thorough  observation  and  study  of  colleges 
for  women  in  the  United  States  of  America.  In  1894 
he  was  encouraged  to  start  the  enterprise,  in  which  his 
special  friends  were  such  men  as  Marquis  Ito,  Marquis 
Saionji,  Counts  Okuma  and  Itagaki,  and  Baron  Utsumi, 
then  Mayor  of  Osaka,  now  Home  Minister. 

Among  the  first  promoters  of  the  enterprise  were 
well-to-do  persons  of  Osaka,  such  as  Mr.  Dogura  and 
Mrs.  Hirooka  (of  the  Mitsui  family).  The  idea  was, 
and  still  is,  to  secure  300,000  yen^  of  which  half  should 
be  used  for  property  and  half  for  endowment.  It  was 
also  decided  not  to  begin  to  build  unless  at  least  100,000 
yen  had  been  raised.  The  money  was  obtained  quite 
rapidly;  and  in  this  Mr.  Naruse's  skill  and  tact  were 
remarkable.  Many  not  in  sympathy  with  the  idea  of 
higher  female  education  (like  Baron  Kato,  ex-President 
of  the  Imperial  University),  were  won  over  by  Mr. 
Naruse's  presentation  of  the  cause. 

The  problem  of  location  was  thoroughly  discussed  in 
Osaka,  and  at  last  it  was  unanimously  agreed  that  Tokyo, 
being  the  capital,  was  the  most  convenient  place,  because 
the  institution  was  not  local,  for  either  Osaka  or  Tokyo 
alone,  but  was  national,  for  all  Japan. 

The  faculty  number  forty-six  in  all,  among  whom  are 
several  professors  of  the  Imperial  University.  The 
President  is,  of  course,  Mr.  Naruse;  and  the  Dean  is 
Professor  S.  Aso,  a  Doshisha  alumnus.  There  are  also 
several  ladies ;  and  it  is  the  purpose  to  have  as  many 
lady  teachers  as  possible. 


APPENDIX  403 

There  are  three  departments  in  the  University  course : 

1.  Department  of  Domestic  Science. 

2.  Department  of  Japanese  Literature. 

3.  Department  of  English  Literature. 

In  the  first  department  the  greater  part  of  the  time 
is  devoted  to  various  branches  of  Applied  and  Domestic 
Science ;  in  the  second  and  third  departments  the  largest 
number  of  hours  is  given  up  to  Japanese  and  English 
respectively.  Ethics,  Sociology,  Psychology,  Education 
(including  Child-Study)  and  Calisthenics  are  required 
studies  in  all  departments ;  and  Drawing,  Music,  and 
Science  of  Teaching,  are  electives  in  all  cases. 

The  boarding-department  includes  seven  "Houses," 
each  with  a  matron  and  a  head  cook.  The  girls  live  just 
as  at  home,  and  take  turns  in  cooking. 

This  school  is  not,  of  course,  to  be  compared  with 
foreign  universities,  or  the  Imperial  University;  nor  is 
it  a  copy  of  other  universities;  but  it  is  intended  to 
make  this  university  just  suited  to  the  needs  of  the 
time  and  the  social  conditions  of  Japanese  women. 
The  standard  will  be  gradually  elevated.  In  the  system 
of  female  education,  it  is  a  university,  at  least  in 
germ. 

It  is  the  purpose  as  soon  as  possible  to  increase  the 
number  of  courses  ;  to  add,  for  instance,  pedagogy  (in- 
cluding sociology,  psychology,  etc.),  music,  science,  art, 
and  calisthenics.  It  is  intended  also  to  extend  the  pre- 
paratory course  downward,  so  that  it  shall  include,  not 
a  Koto  Gakko  only  as  at  present,  but  also  a  Sho  Gakkd 
(Grammar  School)  and  a  kindergarten.  Thus  the  sys- 
tem of  female  education  will  be  complete  in  all  its 
grades :  from  three  to  six  in  the  kindergarten ;  six  years 
in  the  grammar  school ;  five  years  in  the  secondary 
school  (Koto  Jo  Gakko)  ;  three  years  in  the  university  ; 
with  a  post-graduate  course  of  three  years.  Then  surely 
the  institution  will  be  worthy  to  be  called  a  university. 


404 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


Statistics  of  Christianity  in  Japan  * 

Under  the  title,  "  The  Present  State  of  Christianity," 
the  "Tokyo  Maishti  Shinshi"  publishes  a  number  of 
statistics  culled  from  the  Rev.  D.  S.  Spencer's  "  Tidings 
from  Japan."  Here  is  the  ^^Maishu  Shinshi's "  sum« 
mary  of  Mr.  Spencer's  report : 


MUSIOKI. 

Mtsrion- 

ARIBS. 

Natitb  Pas- 
tors AND 
Evangelists. 

Mrmbjsss.^ 

Protestant 

Roman  Catholic    .... 
Greek  Church       .... 

789 

229 

4 

494 

98 

152 

50,512 
55,824 
27,245 

These  figures,  when  compared  with  those  of  ten  years 
ago,  do  not,  as  far  as  the  Greek  Church  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  are  concerned,  indicate  remarkable 
progress,  but  to  Protestants  they  are  on  the  whole 
encouraging.  There  are  23  Protestant  denominations 
working  in  Japan,  but  the  most  important  sects  are  the 
Congregationalists,  the  Presbyterians,  the  Episcopalians, 
the  Methodists,  and  the  Baptists.  The  statistics  for  the 
5  principal  missions  are  as  follows  :  — 


Missions. 

FOKEIGN 

MlSSION- 

AKIK8. 

Jafanesb 
Pastoss. 

Adult 

MSH- 

BBBS. 

Including 
Childkbh. 

Baptisms 
Last 

Y«AB. 

Congregational   . 
Presbyterian  .     . 
Episcopalian  .     . 
Methodist  .     .     . 
Baptist      .    .     . 

71 
153 

224 

233 

56 

45 

79 

47 

125 

9 

10,856 

10,156 

9,968 

9,283 

2,213 

11,548 

11,651 

10,997 

9,711 

2,213 

880 
1,213 

846 
1,598 

328 

1  From  the  "Japan  Mail "  and  the  "Japan  Times." 

«  Later  statistics  give  respectively  83,638  —  66,689  —  32,246. 


APPENDIX  405 

The  following  table  gives  other  interesting  particulars  : 


Missions. 

Chttechm. 

Sblf-support- 
iNO  Churchks. 

Church 

Property. 

Yen. 

Congregational    .     .     . 
Presbyterian    .... 
Episcopalian   .... 

Methodist 

Baptist 

81 
71 
69 
146 
30 

34 

23 

2 

13 

125,794 
218,252 

225,559 

Missiows. 

Sunday- 
School 
Scholars. 

Nativb 
MoNKY  Sub- 
scribed. 
Yen. 

Amount  Per 
Member. 
Yen.  Sen. 

Presbyterian   .... 
Episcopalian    .... 

Methodist 

Baptist  ...... 

6,880 
7,879 
5.524 
12,613 
3,775 

33,791 
29,027 
15,827 
30,011 
4,283 

3.11 
2.86 
1.59 
3.24 
1.94 

It  is  calculated  that  if  all  the  different  kinds  of  property 
held  by  the  Protestant  Church  be  included,  it  is  worth 
over  1,500,000  yen. 

The  Catholic  Church  in  Japan 

A  writer  signing  himself  "  K.  M.'*  contributes  to  the 
"  Fukuin  Shimpo  "  an  account  of  the  methods  followed  by 
the  Eoman  Catholics  and  of  their  work  in  Japan,  said 
to  have  been  derived  from  an  interview  with  L'Abbe  E. 
Ligneul.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  ^^K.  M.'s" 
article.  (1)  The  revival  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  Japan. 
This  began  at  Nagasaki  in  1865,  where  a  church  was 
built  and  when  the  descendants  of  the  old  Christians 
came  forward  in  large  numbers  to  welcome  the  arrival  of 
foreign  missionaries.  Having  mentioned  the  principal 
works  of  reference  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Missions  in 
Japan,  M.  Ligneul  went  on  to  speak  (2)  Of  the  present 
state  of  their  churches.  The  following  table  gives  the 
numerical  strength  of  the  mission  :  — 


406 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


ECCLBSIASTICAL 
DiSTBICTS. 

COKVBBTB. 

JA.PANB8E 

Pbibsts. 

JXPAWMB 

Eyahqklists. 

FOBKIOH 

MissioNAsnn 
(Mal«). 

Tokyo    

Nagasaki     .... 

Osaka  

Hakodate    .... 

9,245 

38,160 
4,273 
4,643 

4 

27 

2 

1 

20 

180 

40 

20 

37 
31 
27 
20 

Total    .... 

56,321 

34 

260 

115 

The  fact  that  comparatively  little  is  known  of  the 
work  being  carried  on  by  the  E-oman  Catholics  through- 
out the  country  is  no  accidental  affair.  It  is  one  of  the 
principles  observed  by  the  whole  mission  to  refrain 
from  the  use  of  the  methods  employed  by  other  missions 
for  making  their  work  known  to  the  public  generally. 


The  Greek  Church  in  Japan 

In  the  issue  of  the  "Tserkovniya  Vyedoraosti"  or 
** Church  Gazette"  (the  official  organ  of  the  Russian 
Church)  for  March  29  (0.  S.)  there  is  a  long  article 
taken  from  the  '^Moscow  Gazette"  on  the  state  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Japan. 

The  writer  says  that  there  are  now  260  congregations, 
one  more  than  last  year  ;  41  clergymen,  including  1 
bishop,  2  Russian  clergymen  (who  have  now  left  Japan 
—  Translator),  30  Japanese  clergymen,  1  Russian  dea- 
con, 7  Japanese  deacons :  altogether  three  more  persons 
than  last  year ;  Christians  27,246  (935  more  than  last 
year )  ;  Catechists  1,214  (643  adults,  571  minors,  al- 
together 305  more  than  last  year)  ;  deaths  279  (18  less 
than  last  year)  ;  marriages  29  (9  more  than  last  year) ; 
churches  or  preachers'  houses  174.  The  sum  of  the 
offerings  made  by  the  Christians  in  support  of  their 
church  totalled  11,870  yen  41.8  sen,  4,605  yen  72.6  sen 


APPENDIX  407 

more  than  last  year.     The  number  of  pupils  in  Mission 
schools  totalled  152,  12  less  than  last  year. 


The  annual  meeting  of  clergy  (Shinpin  Kwaigi)  of 
the  Greek  Church  Mission  was  held  in  the  cathedral 
of  that  mission  in  Tokyo  on  the  15th  iust.  It  was 
reported  at  the  meeting  that  there  were  1,037  converts 
last  year,  deaths  320 ;  and  now  that  the  members  of 
the  church  number  27,956,  including  40  clergymen  and 
146  denkiosha  (preachers  or  unordained  evangelists  and 
helpers) . 

Japan's  National  Song* 

Few  Europeans  have  learned  to  detect  and  enjoy  the 
subtle  beauty  of  Japanese  poetry.  Fewer  still,  perhaps, 
are  acquainted  with  the  delicate  charm  of  the  little  poem 
which,  although  not  a  hymn,  takes  the  place  in  Japanese 
minds  and  hearts  of  the  Briton's  *^God  Save  the  King," 
or  the  American's  "My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee."  It  is 
sung  to  a  native  air,  the  custom  being  to  siug  the  poem 
through  thrice,  and  when  thus  rendered  by  a  large  and 
enthusiastic  company  it  is  often  truly  impressive.  The 
poem  itself  is  very  old,  being  found  in  the  "  Manyoshiu," 
which  dates  from  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
and  its  author  is  unknown.  As  originally  composed,  it 
was  not  addressed  to  the  actual  ruler,  but  in  all  prob- 
ability to  an  Emperor  who  had  gone  into  retirement. 
Now,  however,  it  is  exclusively  applied  to  the  reigning 
Sovereign.  The  poem  consists  of  the  usual  number  of 
thirty-one  syllables,  and  runs  as  follows  :  — 

Kimi  ga  yo  wa 
Chiyo  ni  yachiyo  ni 
Sazare  ishi  no 
Iwao  to  narite 
Koke  no  musu  made. 

1  From  the  "  Kobe  Herald." 


408   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

So  far  as  we  are  aware  only  two  English  translations 
have  been  published.  One  of  these  is  by  Viscount 
Fukuba,  and,  closely  following  the  original,  reads  as 
follows : 

*'May  our  Sovereign  live  for  thousands  and  ten  thousands 
of  years,  until  the  tiny  pebble  becomes  a  moss-covered  rock." 

The  other,  by  Professor  Chamberlain,  is  more  finished 
but  less  literal  than  the  foregoing,  and  is  included  in  his 
excellent  "  Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese  " :  — 

"  A  thousand  years  of  happy  life  be  thine  ! 
Live  on,  My  lord,  till  what  are  pebbles  now, 
By  age  united,  to  great  rocks  shall  grow. 
Whose  venerable  sides  the  moss  doth  line." 

To  the  above  translations  may  be  added  a  third  by  the 
late  Dr.  Gordon :  — 

"  O  Prince  upon  the  throne  ! 
Ten  thousand  years  live  on, 
Till  pebbles  shall  great  rocks  become 
With  moss  all  overgrown !  ' ' 

Floral  Japan 

The  Japanese  are  a  nature-loving  people,  and  frequently 
give  practical  expression  to  their  feelings  by  taking  a 
holiday  simply  for  "flower-viewing."  At  the  proper 
season  the  entire  nation,  so  to  speak,  takes  a  day  off, 
and  turns  out  on  a  big  picnic  to  see  the  plum  blossoms, 
or  the  cherry  blossoms,  or  the  maples,  or  the  chrysan- 
themums. No  utilitarian  views  of  the  value  of  time  or 
miserly  conceptions  of  the  expense  of  such  outings  pre- 
vail for  a  moment ;  for  the  Japanese  are  worshippers 
of  beauty  rather  than  of  the  "almighty  dollar."  A  few 
pennies  on  such  occasions  bring  many  pleasures ;  and 
business  interests  are  sacrificed  at  the  shrine  of  beauty. 
And,  as  one  or  more  flowers  are  blooming  every  month, 
because  twigs,  leaves,  grasses,  etc.,  are  included  in  the 


APPENDIX  409 

scope  of  the  word  hana,  there  is  almost  a  continuous 
round  of  such  picnics  during  the  year.  It  is  our  pur- 
pose, therefore,  to  arrange  a  calendar  of  flowers  popular 
each  month. 

At  the  very  outset  we  are  confronted  with  a  chrono- 
logical difficulty  in  presenting  this  subject  to  Western 
readers.  For  the  programme  of  Japanese  floral  festivals 
was  originally  arranged  on  the  basis  of  the  old  lunar 
calendar  so  long  in  vogue  in  Japan.  By  that  calendar 
the  N'ew  Year  came  in  at  varying  dates  from  about  the 
21st  of  January  up  to  the  19th  of  February  ;  in  1903  it 
fell  on  Thursday,  January  29  ;  so  that  it  is  from  three  to 
seven  weeks  behind  the  Occidental  solar  calendar.  And 
yet,  when  Japan  adopted  the  Gregorian  calendar,  many 
of  these  festivals  were  transferred  to  the  '^New  Style" 
without  regard  to  the  awful  anachronism  that  necessarily 
followed. 

For  instance,  the  following  is  a  floral  programme  accord- 
ing to  the  "  Old  Style  "  :  — 

Old  Sttm.  New  Style. 

1st  month,  February Pine. 

2d  "  March Plum. 

3d  •*  April Cherry. 

4th  "  May Wistaria. 

5th  "  June Iris. 

6th  "  July Tree  peony. 

7th  "  August Lespedeza. 

8th  "  September Eularia. 

9th  "  October Chrysanthemum. 

10th  "  November Maple. 

11th  "  December Willow. 

12th  "  January Paulownia. 

Now,  the  pine  is  chosen  for  the  1st  month  (0.  S.)  on 
account  of  the  prominent  part  that  it  plays  in  the  New 
Year's  decorations,  but  when  the  new  year  begins  the 
first  of  January,  that  calendar  suffers  serious  dislocation, 
because  all  of  the  other  flowers  cannot  be  moved  a 
whole  month. 


410 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 


A  similar  confusion  arises  in  connection  with  the 
great  festival  of  the  ^'autumn  full  moon/^  in  which 
certain  grasses  also  figured.  By  the  lunar  calendar  it 
fell  about  the  15th  day  of  the  8th  month,  which  never 
comes  in  the  Western  8th  month,  August.  It  came  in 
1902  on  September  18 ;  and  1903  it  will  not  come  until 
early  in  October !  It  may  now  be  readily  seen  how 
difficult  it  is  in  Japan  to  run  on  schedule  time ! 

But,  taking  all  these  difficulties  into  consideration, 
and  harmonizing  them  so  far  as  possible,  we  have  been 
able  to  construct  the  following  modern  Japanese  floral 
calendar :  — 


January    . 

.     .    Pine. 

July     .     . 

.    Morning-glory. 

February  . 

.     .    Plum. 

August     . 

.    Lotus. 

March .     . 

.    .    Peach. 

September 

.     "  Seven  Grasses." 

April    .     . 

.     .     Cherry. 

October    . 

.     Chrysanthemum. 

May     .     . 

.     .    Wistaria. 

November 

.     Maple. 

June    .    . 

.     .    Iris. 

December 

.    Camellia. 

Japan  and  Siam^ 

Mr.  Inagaki,  Japanese  Representative  in  Bangkok, 
has  been  making  strenuous  efforts  to  bring  about  the 
establishment  of  a  direct  line  of  steamers  between  Japan 
and  Siam.  He  maintains  that  there  cannot  be  any 
substantial  development  of  trade  without  some  improve- 
ment of  the  means  of  communication.  Tokyo  newspapers 
report  that  the  Osaka  Shosen  Kaisha  has  been  induced 
to  undertake  the  extension  of  its  Formosan  line  to 
Siara,  and  that  arrangements  are  now  under  discussion 
with  the  Formosan  officials. 

In  a  lecture  delivered  by  Mr.  Inagaki  before  the 
Japan  Economic  Society,  he  insisted  that  Siam  could 
be  of  the  greatest  service  to  Japan  in  supplying  raw 
materials  and  food  stuffs.  Her  production  of  sugar, 
hemp,  and  gum  is  very  large,  and  whereas  her  export 

1  From  the  "  Japan  Mail." 


APPENDIX  411 

of  silk  ten  years  ago  was  only  250, 000  yen,  it  is  now  10 
millions.  The  Siamese  government  has  decided  to  devote 
a  quarter  of  a  million  yen  to  agricultural  experimental  sta- 
tions, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  if  Japan  sent  seeds 
of  raw  materials  to  be  grown  in  that  country,  fine  results 
would  be  obtained.  It  is  important  that  a  country  like 
Japan  should  have  a  source  of  supply  which  would  certainly 
remain  neutral  in  time  of  war,  and  Siam  is  essentially  such 
a  source.  This  question  of  food  supply  will  one  day  be  as 
important  for  Japan  as  it  is  already  for  England,  and  its 
solution  seems  to  lie  in  the  direction  of  Siam. 

Formosa  under  Japan 

Concerning  Formosa  under  Japanese  rule  the  following 
additional  items  are  worthy  of  notice.  The  Governor- 
General,  1913,  is  Count  Sakuma. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  "  Japan  Mail "  that 
the  revenue  of  the  new  territory  in  the  first  six  years 
after  its  cession  to  Japan  has  increased  by  600  per  cent, 
as  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

Yen. 

1896 2,710,000 

1897 5,320,000 

1898 8,250,000 

1899 11,750,000 

1900 14,900,000 

1901 16,370,000 


The  number  of  the  pest  patients  in  Formosa  has  been 
decreasing  year  after  year,  as  the  following  returns  for 
the  period  January  1  to  June  17  of  the  respective  years 
show :  — 

Oasis.  Moetality. 

1901 3,481  2,619 

1902 1,795  1,352 

1903 750  606 


The  government  is  making  strenuous  efforts  to  increase 
the   export  trade.     It  has  subsidized  a  modern  sugar- 


412   A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN 

mill  whicli  has  commenced  operations  in  South  Formosa, 
manufacturing  brown  sugar  for  refining  purposes ;  it 
has  likewise  given  assistance  to  a  white-sugar  factory ; 
it  has  started  an  experimental  paper-factory ;  in  fact,  it 
has  devoted  all  its  energies  toward  increasing  the  island's 
productions.  Independent  Japanese  firms  have  likewise 
done  a  good  deal,  though  not  as  much  as  we  had  reason 
to  anticipate.  Two  gold-quartz  mills,  one  being  of  con- 
siderable size,  are  successfully  at  work  in  the  Formosan 
gold  fields  ;  two  wealthy  companies  are  engaged  in  plan- 
tation work  on  a  large  scale  in  Southeast  and  in  North 
Formosa ;  and  there  is  a  glass-factory  in  the  north, 
several  Japanese-owned  coal-mines,  a  paper-factory  at 
Kagi,  several  modern  salt  farms,  and  other  small  indus- 
tries, to  Japanese  credit.  In  improving  transportation, 
the  Japanese  have  done  much,  and  are  planning  to  do 
much  more.  The  Chinese  railway  line  was  handed  over 
to  the  Japanese  in  such  a  condition  that  it  had  to  be 
all  reconstructed.  We  thus  have  practically  a  new  line 
to  Kelung  and  another  to  Shinchiku  (formerly  Tecko- 
ham).  In  addition  to  these,  new  lines  were  constructed 
from  Taihoku  to  Tamsui,  and  from  Takow  to  Shinyeisho 
via  Tainan-fu,  which  gives  a  total  of  93  miles  of  rail. 
The  trunk  Hue  connecting  the  north  and  south  is  now 
in  course  of  construction.^  The  Japanese  have  also  built 
over  200  miles  of  narrow  gauge  for  the  temporary  trans- 
port of  military  supplies,  general  freight,  and  passengers. 
Nearly  a  thousand  miles  of  ordinary  road  have  been 
constructed.* 


Rev.  W.  Campbell,  a  Scotch  missionary  in  Formosa, 
testifies  concerning  what  Japan  has  accomplished  in  the 
island :  — 

At  the  outset  it  should  be  remembered  that,  when 

1  Completed  in  1908.  *  U.  S.  Consul  Davidson. 


APPENDIX  413 

they  [Japanese]  arrived  in  1895,  instead  of  being  allowed 
to  take  quiet  possession,  they  found  the  people  every- 
where up  in  arms  against  them,  and  had  literally  to  fight 
their  way  from  north  to  south  before  anything  like 
settled  government  could  be  established.  .  .  .  Immedi- 
ately after  some  measure  of  peace  had  been  restored,  the 
executive  sent  out  qualified  experts  to  engage  in  survey 
work  and  to  report  on  the  resources  of  their  newly  ceded 
territory. 

A  complete  census  of  the  population  was  taken  in 
1897,  800  miles  of  roads  were  made,  and  a  tramway  line 
laid  down  from  Takow  to  Sin-tek.  This  was  followed 
by  construction  of  the  main  line  of  railway  from  Kelung 
to  Takow,  about  one-half  of  which  has  already  been 
opened  for  goods  and  passenger  traffic.  Three  cables 
were  also  laid  down,  connecting  Formosa  with  Japan, 
Foochow,  and  the  Pescadores,  and  over  the  existing  1,500 
miles  of  telegraph  and  telephone  wires  immediate  com- 
munication has  been  made  possible  with  every  important 
inland  centre.  The  post  offices  recently  opened  in  For- 
mosa number  over  a  hundred,  and  letters  can  now  be 
sent  to  any  part  of  the  empire  for  two  cents  each.  Up 
till  the  close  of  1899,  122  government  educational  insti- 
tutions had  been  established,  only  9  of  those  being  for 
Japanese,  and  113  for  natives.  There  are  at  present  10 
principal  Government  hospitals  in  the  island,  at  which 
about  60,000  patients  are  treated  gratuitously  every  year, 
while  sanitary  precautions  and  free  vaccination  have 
become  so  general  that  the  danger  from  visitations  like 
small-pox  and  plague  has  been  very  much  reduced.^ 

1  For  details  concerning  what  the  Japanese  have  accomplished 
in  Eormosa,  see  Takekoshi's  "  Japanese  Rule  in  Formosa." 


414    A  HANDBOOK  OF  MODERN  JAPAN  ♦ 

The  Americo-Japanese  Entente 

"1.  It  is  the  wish  of  the  two  Governments  to  encour- 
age the  free  and  peaceful  development  of  their  commerce 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean ; 

"  2.  The  policy  of  both  Governments,  uninfluenced  by 
any  aggressive  tendencies,  is  directed  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  existing  status  quo  in  the  region  above  mentioned 
and  to  the  defence  of  the  principle  of  equal  opportunity 
for  commerce  and  industry  in  China ; 

"3.  They  are  accordingly  firmly  resolved  recipro- 
cally to  respect  the  territorial  possessions  belonging 
to  each  other  in  said  region; 

"4.  They  are  also  determined  to  preserve  the  com- 
mon interests  of  all  Powers  in  China,  by  supporting  by 
all  pacific  means  at  their  disposal,  the  independence  and 
integrity  of  China  and  the  principle  of  equal  opportu- 
nity for  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations  in  that 
Empire ; 

"  5.  Should  any  event  occur  threatening  the  status  quo 
as  above  described,  or  the  principle  of  equal  opportunity 
as  above  defined,  it  remains  for  the  two  Governments  to 
communicate  with  each  other  in  order  to  arrive  at  an 
understanding  as  to  what  measures  they  may  consider  it 
useful  to  take." 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abdication,  practice  of,  90,  97 

Aborigines,  44 

Academy  of  Music,  Tokyo,  217 

Acrobats,  66 

Actors'  guild,  27 

Adams,  Will,  91 

"Advance  Japan,"  15,28,  59,117, 132, 
158,  208 

Agricultural  College,  216 

Agricultural  College  in  China,  297 

Agricultural  experiment  stations, 
Siam,  411 

Agriculture,  16-22,  216,  350 

Ainu,  44,  45 

"Ainu  Folk-lore,"  45 

"  Ainu  of  Japan,"  45 

Akashi,  8 

Alaska,  15 

Alcock,  117 

Ale,  56 

Aleutian  Islands,  15 

Almonds,  351 

Amaterasu,  see  Sun-Goddess 

America,  2,  3,  7,  14,  20,  21,  28,  34,  37, 
61, 106,  112,  140,  145,  189,  213,  219, 
220, 237,  268,  270,  271,  281,  285,  290, 
292,  299-301 

American  baby,  first,  60;  books,  fa- 
vorite, 204;  fleet  visits  Japan,  335; 
life,  80 ;  state  legislature,  135 

"  American  Japanese  Relations,"  341 

"  American  Journal  of  Sociology,"  175 

"  American  Missionary  in  Japan,  An," 
190,  269 

Americans,  33,  36,47,  66,  79,  104,  107, 
144,  165,  168,  210,  216 

Americo-Japanese  Entente,  the,  335 

Amoy,  295 


Amusements,  66-69 
Anarchists,  337 
Ancestors,  worship  of,  64 
"Ancestor-Worship     and     Japanese 

Law,"  174,  249 
"Ancient  Matters,  Records  of,"  92 
Anderson,  235 
Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  4,  92,  147, 

153,  154,  156, 157,  299,  332,  338 
Anglo-Saxon    influence,     157;    town 

meeting,  142 
Anglo-Saxons,  128,  168,  310 
Animals,  «ee  names  of  animals 
"Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

of  Political  and  Social  Science,"  129 
Anti-Christian  edicts  removed,  91,  111, 

112 
Anti-foreign  reaction,  92,  114,  115 
Antimony,  23 
Aomori,  17,  32 
Aoyama,  Dr.,  220 
Apples,  19 
Apricots,  19 
Arbitration  treaty  with  United  States, 

335 
Architecture,  51,  91 
Area,  5,  7 
Arima,  8 
Arita  ware,  229 
Armor,  230 
Army,  126,  147-151;  statistics,  381, 

382 
Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  78,  253 
Arsenal,  149,  150,  286 
"  Art  Japonais,  L',"  235,  236 
Artisans,  48,  82 
"Artistic  Japan,"  236 
"  Artist's  Letters  from  Japan,  An,"  236 
Arts,  fine,  91, 222-236 ;  mechanical,  24, 

25 


418 


INDEX 


Aryans,  45 

Asahigawa,  149 

Asakawa,  328 

Asama,  8 

Ashikaga  period,  98,  99 

Ashikaga  supremacy,  91 

Ashikaga  Yoshimasa,  '233 

Asia,  14,  149,  156,  281,  292,  294,  301 

"Asia,  the  key  of,"  4;  Eastern,  su- 
premacy of  Japan  in,  299,  300 

"Asiatic  Loch  Lomond,"  8 

Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  Transactions, 
20,  22,  43,  54,  61,  62,  71,  83,  89,  92, 
101,  132,  133,  145,  159,  174,  199, 
208,  231,  249,  255,  259,  261 

Aso,  Mount,  8 

Aso,  Prof.  S.,  402 

*'  As  the  Hague  Ordains,"  328 

Aston,  W.  G.,  50,  92,  208,  232,  236, 
249 

Atami,  '8 

Athletics,  66 

"  Atlantic  Monthly,"  302 

Atsu,  Prince,  123 

Audsley,  G.  A.,  235,  236 

Australasia,  281 

Australia,  34,545 

Austria,  85 

Automobiles,  31,  34 

Autumn,  Japanese,  12 

"Awakening  of  the  East,  The,"  28, 158 

"Awakening  of  Japan,  The,"  117,  304, 
328 

Ayrton,  Mrs.  Chaplin-,  75 

B 

Babylon,  300 

Bacon,  Miss  Alice  M.,  &9,  75, 189, 190, 

221 
Badgers,  13 
Baelz,  Dr.,  46,  47 
Baggage,  29 

Baggage  check  system,  American,  33 
Bakan,  9 
Ballard,  Miss,  70 
Ballard,  Walter  J.,  356 
Baltic  fleet,  Russian,  316,  317-318 
Bamboo,  13,  22,  74 
Bananas,  19 


Bandai,  Mount,  8, 113 

Bank  of  Formosa.  38 

Bank  of  Japan,  38, 39,  92, 170 ;  organ- 
ized, 113 

Banks,  national,  38;  see  also  specific 
names;  private,  38;  savings,  38,  39; 
deposits,  364 

Baptists,  264,  272,  404,  405 

Barbers'  guild,  27 

Barley,  19,  26,  55 

Base-ball,  66 

Bastiat's  "  Science  of  Finance,"  206 

Batchelor,  J.,  45 

Bathing,  58,  59 

Battleships,  see  Warships 

Bays,  9 

Beans,  19,  37,  55 

Bear,  13 

Beechey,  Capt.,  105 

Beef,  54 

Beer,  56  ;  brewing,  24 

Beets,  19 

Beggars,  48;  guild,  27 

Bellows,  U.  S.  Consul,  351 

Bettelheim,  Dr.,  105 

Bevan,  Paul,  236 

Bicycle  boats,  85 

Bicycles,  31,  34,  280,  281 

Biddle,  Commodore,  105 

Bimetalism,  92,  111 

Bing,  S.,  236 

Bird,  Miss,  see  Bishop,  Mrs.  Isabella 
Bird 

Birds,  13 

Birth  and  birthdays,  60,  61 

Bishop,  Mrs.  Isabella  Bird,  15,  43,  45, 
341 

Biwa  Lake,  8 

Bizen  ware,  229 

Black,  J.  R.,  117,  200 

Blind,  the,  217 

"Blossom,"  105 

"  Blue-Jacket  Spirit,"  152 

Boar,  13 

Boatmen,  30 

Boats,  29,  31 ;  see  also  Steamboats 

Boissonade,  M.,  161 

Bonin  Islands,  34 

Books,  197,  203-206 

Booth,  General,  334 


INDEX 


419 


Bowes,  J.  L.,  235 

Boxer  troubles,  115, 146,  153,  308 

Bramhall,  Mrs.,  60,  75,  221 

Brick  industry,  24 

Bricklayers'  guild,  27 

Brinkley,  Captain,  208,  231-233,  235, 

309,  311 
British,  7,  66 
British  Columbia,  14 
Brothels,  166,  167,  271 
Buckwheat,  19 
Buddha,  253-255,  260;  statue  of,  228; 

birthday,  74 
Buddhism,  48,  54,  90,  96,  99, 177,  224, 
237,    252-260,   269,    288;  Buddhist 
ceremonies,    62  ;    education,    209  ; 
festivals,  63,   65  ;   periodicals,  203 ; 
philosophy,  198  ;  priests,  224,  258  ; 
temples,  65,  166,  240,  243,  253,  258 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  37 
Bushido,  251-252 
"Bushido,   the  Soul  of  Japan,"  89, 

239,  252,  261 
Business  ability  of  Japanese,  39-42, 

82-83 
"  Business  men's  party,"  131 
Business  men,  American,  visit  Japan, 
335 ;  Japanese  visit  United  States, 
337 
Butter,  37 
Button  industr}--,  24 
Byron,  Lord,  204 


Cabinet,  124,  125,  130,  143,  340,  375, 
376 ;  reconstruction,  113, 114 

California,  5, 14,  37 

Camellia,  410;  trees,  12 

Campbell,  W.,  398 

Camphor,  37 ;  trees,  12,  21 

Canada,  335 

Canadian  Pacific  steamship  line,  3 

Candles,  37 

Canning  industry,  22 

Canton  river,  14 

Capital  punishment,  162 

Capitals  of  Japan,  91,  96,  97 

Carpenters,  wages  of,  26,  360  ;  guild, 
27 


Carriage,  281 

Carrots,  19 

Gary,  Otis,  89,  249,  259,  276 

"  Catalogue  of  Japanese  and  Chinese 
Paintings  in  the  British  Museum," 
235 

"  Catalogue  of  the  Morse  Collection  of 
Japanese  Pottery,"  235 

Cats,  13 

Caucasians,  45 

Cedar  trees,  12 

Cemeteries,  258,  259 

Central  America,  291 

Chamberlain,  B.  H.,  15,  22,  45,  58,  75, 
86,  92,  152,  161,  192,  197,  199,  208, 
222,  236,  252,  256,  408 

Chang  Chih-tung,  Viceroy,  297 

Changtu,  occupation  of,  317 

Cha-no-Yu,  see  Tea-ceremonial 

Characteristics  of  the  people,  46-50, 
76-89 

"Charter  Oath,"  91,  110-112,  118 

"  Chautauquan,  The,"  211,  401 

Chemulpo,  311 

Cherry  flowers,  65,  79,  408-410;  trees, 
13 

Chestnuts,  19 

Chicago,  3,  11,  37,  38 

Chickens,  13,  54,  56 

"  Child-Life  in  Japan,"  75 

Children,  66, 181, 182 

China,  4,  5,  7, 14,  21,  34, 35,  37,  42,  92, 
96,  99,  103, 106,  115,  143,  146,  149, 
150,  153,  154,  157,  221,  224,  237, 
250,  255,  285,  287,  291,  292,  294- 
299,  301 ;  tribute  to,  91 ;  war  with, 
92,  115,307,  308;  Japanese  influence 
in,  294-298  ;  Revolution,  340 

"  China  and  the  Far  East,"  341 

Chinese,  7,  85,  94,  100,  105,  143,  144, 
178,  198,  281,  297,  298;  Chinese 
art,  224;  Chinese  Empire,  157; 
ideographs,  193,  194,  207,  220,  227; 
government  service,  297  ;  language, 
209;  literature,  90,  208,  209,  296; 
zodiac,  71;  students  in  Japan,  340 

"  Chinese  Recorder,"  297 

Ching-ho-cheng,  317 
Cholera,  10 
Chop-sticks,  55 


420 


INDEX 


Choshiu,  Clan  of,  109 

Christian  home,  177 

Christian  literature,  265,  266 ;  periodi- 
cals, 203 

"  Christian  Movement  in  Japan, 
The,"  276 

Christianity,  48,  61,  71,  91,  99,  100, 
107,  111,  156-158, 167,  177, 190,  219, 
237,  240,  242,  243,  247-249, 253,  256, 
259,276,  286-288;  helped  by  war, 
324,  334,  336,  337;  statistics,  404- 
406;  see  also  Anti-Christian 

"Christianity  in  Japan,  History  of," 
276 

"Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,"  276 

Christmas,  66 

Chromoxylography,  see  Color  print- 
ing 

"  Chronicle,"  Kobe,  201 

"Chronicles  of  Japan,"  92 

Chrysanthemum   Festival,  64,  65 

Chrysanthemums,  408<-410 

"Chrysanthemums,  War  of  the,"  91, 
99 

Church,  Japanese,  336 

Churches,  91, 110,  111,  267,  268,  287 

Chuzenji,  Lake,  8 

Cire  perdue  process,  230 

Cities,  opening  of,  91 

Citizen  (komin),  138-140 

City  Council,  140,  141 

"  Civil  Code,  New  Japanese,  Lectures 
on,"  174 

Civil  war,  91,  109, 110 

"  Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese," 
236,  408 

Clearing-houses,  354 

Clement's  "Christianity  in  Modem 
Japan,"  276 

Clement's  "Japanese  Floral  Calen- 
dar," 65 

Climate,  5,  6, 11,  12 

Cloisonnd,  230 

Coal,  23,  37,  41,  42, 152,  292,  295,  298 

Coast  line,  5,  9, 10 

Cocoa,  37 

Code,  Civil,  61, 114-116, 176, 178, 180- 
182,  190  ;  commercial,  38,  114,  115, 
161;  criminal,  161;  Napoleon,  161; 
penal,   113 ;  civil  procedure,  161  ; 


criminal  procedure,  113,  161;  codes, 

new,  92 
Co-education,  211 
Coffins,  62 
Coins,  39 
Collotype,  227 

Colonial  Bank  of  Hokkaido,  38 
Color  printing,  227 
Columbia  University,  296 
"  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of 

the  Empire  of  Japan,"  132 
Commerce,  36,  37,  39-43;  Treaty  of 

commerce  and  navigation,  385-399 
Commercial  centre,  291 
Compulsory  school  attendance,  212 
Conder,  Josiah,  54,  236 
"Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Hea- 
thenism," 275 
Confucian  education,  209;  influences, 

91;  philosophy,  198 
Confucianism,  48,  96,  100,  101,  237, 

250-252,  260 
Congregationalists,  264,  404,  405 
Constantine,  248,  275 
Constitution,    92,    113,   114,    120-122, 

124,  127,  128,  132,  150,  273,  287 
"  Constitutional       Development      of 

Japan,"  111,  132,  145 
**  Constitutional       Government       in 

Japan,"  129 
Continental  influences,  90 
Convicts,  162 
Cooking,  56 

Cooks',  European-style,  union,  27 
Coolies,  27,  29.  31,  32,  282;  guild,  27 
Co-operative  stores,  27,  28 
Copper,  23,  37,  41 
"  Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation,"  341 
Cornstarch,  37 
Corporal  punishment,  212 
Costumes,  see  Dress 
Cotton,  21, 37;  mills,  21, 286 ;  spinning, 

21;  velvet,  37 
Counsel,  163, 164 
Couriers,  29,  35,  281 
Courts,  163-165 
Cream,  evaporated,  37 
Credit  Mobilier,  38 
"Creed  of  Half  Japan,  The,"  261 
Crimes,  162 


INDEX 


421 


Criminal  law,  160,  161 
Criminals,  163 
Currency,  39 
Curtis,  W.  E.,  28,  43,  56, 

Curtius, ,  107 

Customs,  60-75 


132, 174 


Dai  Nihon  Shi,  101 ' 

"Dai  Nippon,"  28,  59,  89,  117,  132, 

158 
Dalny,  295,  309,  313 
Damascus,  230 
Dancing,     68,     69,     228,     231-233; 

dancing-girls,  69 
Dan-no-ura,  Battle  of,  98 
Darwin's  "Origin  of  Species,"  204 
Davidson,  U.  S.  Consul,  21,  143, 145, 

398 
Days,  special,  lucky  or  unlucky,  71-75 
Deaf,  education  of,  217 
Death,  62 
Deer,  13 

De  Forest,  Dr.,  276 
Deme  Jikan,  228 
Dening,  Prof.,  86,  89 
Deportation,  162 

Development,  internal,  104,  113, 114 
"  Dial,  The,"  Chicago,  204,  206,  208 
*'  Diamond  edition  of  humanity,"  47 
"  Diary  of  a  Japanese  Convert,"  265 
Dickens,  F.  V.,  236,  303 
Dickson,  Walter,  117 
Dining-cars,  33 
Diosy,  Arthur,  39,  117,  145,  151,  152, 

156, 158 
Disciples,  264 
Divisions,  5,  6 

Divorce,  61, 177,  179, 180, 181 
Dixon,  W.  G.,  109,  117 
Docks,  110,  111,  286;  dockyards,  91 
Dogs,  13 
Dogura,  Mr.,  402 
Dolls,  66 

Dolls'  festival,  61,  64,  65 
Doshisha,  215 
Dowie,  J.  A.,  264 
Drama,  233 
Dress,  56-59,  284 


Duarchy,  97 

Dumb,  education  of,  217 

Dutch,  91,   100,  105,  106,  210,   281 ; 

books,  285 
"DuxChristus,"276 
Dyeing,  24 
Dyer,  Prof.,  28,  59,  89,  117,  132,  158 


E 


"Earthquake,  The  Great,"  see  Cabi- 
net reconstruction 

Earthquakes,  8,  10,  51,  88,  106;  Gifu, 
92,  114;  Professor  of,  216 

Easter,  66 

Eastlake,  F.  W.,  117, 158,  283 

Ebara,  Mr.,  274 

Editors,  201 

Education,  47,  209-221,  285,  341 

"Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far 
East,  The,"  221 

Edwards,  Osman,  68 

Egg-plants,  19 

Eggs,  26,  55,  56,  60 

Election,  First  National,  114;  first 
under  Constitution  of  1889,  127 

Electoral  franchise,  extension  of,  115, 
116 

Electric  cars,  34,  281;  lights,  31,  36; 
railways,  31 ;  apparatus  manu- 
factories, 286 

Elgin,  Lord,  106,  107 

"Elizabethan  Age,"  Japan's,  97 

Elocution,  195 

Embroidery,  24,  231 

Emperor  Yoshihito,  123,  339 

Emperors  and  Empresses,  chronologi- 
cal table,  374-375 

Empire,  New,  91 

Empress  Dowager,  the,  111,  188,  280 

Empress  Sada,  123, 188 

Enamelling,  230 

"Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  204 

Engine  works,  286 

Engineering,  23 

Engineers,  American,  32 

England,  37,  61,  85,  93,  300 

English,  91,  145 

"  English-Japflnese  Dictionary,"  208 

"English- Japanese  Etymology,"  208 


422 


INDEX 


English  language,  113,  195,  201,  211, 
219,  285,  298 

English  normal  school,  186 

Epicureanism,  79,  81 

Epidemics,  10 

Episcopalians,  264,  272,  404,  405 

Eularia,  409 

Europe,  3,  34,  112,  156,  189,  213,  237, 
281,  290,  292,  299,  301 

European  books,  favorite,  204 ;  lan- 
guages, 220 

Europeans,  47 

Evangelical  alliance,  271 

"Everj"  Day  Japan,"  15,  43,  59,  75, 
89,  158, 174,  190,  221,  261 

"Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  The,"  89 

Exports,  36,  37,  298,  368 


Factories,  352-353 

"  Fairy  Tales  from  Far  Japan,"  70 

Family,  Japanese,  50,  51 

Fan  industry,  24 

Farming,  16,  17-19;  farmers,  48,  82, 
248,  283 

Fenollosa,  E.  F.,  235 

Festivals,  63-65 

"  Feudal  and  Modern  Japan,"  59,  89, 
101,  132,  208,  249 

Feudalism,  91, 110,  112, 119,  133,  134, 
370 

Figs,  19,  351 

Filial  piety,  87,  166,  176,  250 

Fillmore,  Millard,  102, 106 

Finck,  H.  T.,  15,  59,  89 

Fine  Arts  School,  Tokyo,  217 

Firefly  lamp,  285 

"Fire-Fly's  Lovers,  The,"  70 

Fire-Shine  and  Fire-Fade,  Princes,  90 

Fish,  13,  22,  23,  26,  55,  56 ;  fisheries, 
294;  considered  by  Peace  com- 
missioners, 319,  320 

Fisher's  "  Universal  History,"  205 

Flag,  Imperial,  6;  first  foreign,  offici- 
ally raised,  107 ;  flags,  feast  of  the, 
61,  64,  65 ;  red  and  white,  wars  of, 
91 

Florenz,  Dr.,  249 

Flour,  37 


Flowers,  408-410;  arrangement,  233, 
234 ;  festivals,  65, 409, 410 ; "  Flower- 
viewing,"  394;  see  also  specific 
names 

"Flowers  of  Japan  and  the  Art  of 
Floral  Arrangement,  The,"  236 

Folk-lore,  70 

Food,  54-56,  284 

Foreign  Language  School,  Tokyo,  217 

Foreign  trade,  368 

Foreigners,  status  of,  170-174 

Formosa,  Island  of,  3,  5,  6,  12, 14,  16, 
21,  30,  34,  91,  92,  111,  115,  142-144, 
220,  295,  336,  347;  under  Japan,  143, 
144,  411-413 

Formosan  Bank,  295 

Foxes,  13 

France,  37,  85, 164,  278,  290 

Franco-Japanese  Agreement,  333 

Freight,  29,  30 ;  carts,  30,  31 

French  language,  211,  285 

Friends,  264,  272 

Froebel,  Friedrich,  214 

"From  Far  Formosa,"  276 

"From  Tokyo  through  Manchuria  with 
the  Japanese,"  328 

Fruit,  see  specific  names 

Fruit-growing,  351-352 

Fuchow,  294,  295,  413 

Fuji,  Mount,  8 

Fujiwara  bureaucracy,  91;  epoch,  97; 
family  established  in  regency,  91 

Fukuba,  Viscount,  408 

Fukuzawa,  Mr.,  184, 185,  215 

Fukwai,  135-138 

Funeral  ceremonies,  62 

Furniture,  52,  53 

Fushun,  occupation  of,  317 

"  Future  of  Japan,  The,"  304 


Gale,  J.  S.,  341 
Gamblers*  guild,  27 
Game,  54 
Games,  66 
Gardens,  17,  53,  54 
Gas,  36 

Geisha,  see  Dancing-girls 
Genroku  era,  356 


INDEX 


423 


German  liberals,  264 

Germany,  37,  85,  122,  145,  147;  and 

Japan,  300 ;  German  language,  211, 

285 
"  Geschichte  des  Japanischen  Farben- 

holzschnitts,"  235 
Gifu  earthquake,  92,  114 
Ginko  or  Salisburia,  351 
Ginza,  the,  of  Tokyo,  26 
"  Gist  of  Japan,  The,"  15,  89,  249,  276 
Glass-blowing,  24 
"Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan,"  43, 

54,  65 
Glyptic  art,  227 
Go,  66 
Goats,  13 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  204 

Goh, ,  50 

Gokinai,  6 

Gold,  23,  27,  41,  369;  see  Coins;  gold 

standard,  39,  92,  115,116 
Golownin,  Captain,  104 
Gonse,  Louis,  235,  236 
Gordon,  Captain,  104 
Gordon,  Dr.,  190,  408 
"  Gospel  ship,"  267,  287 
Goto  family,  230 
Government,  Constitutional,  113,  116; 

and  Liberals,  alliance  between,  115; 

ownership,  33 
Governor,  136-138 
Governors,  assembly  of,  91,  111 
Graeco-Ronian  mythology,  95 
"Grammar  of  the  Japanese  Written 

Language,"  208 
Grant,  U.  S.,  113,  369 
Grapes,  19,  351 
Grave-diggers,  48 
Great  Britain,  4,  37, 146, 147, 153-157, 

308,  310,  317 
Greater  Japan,  331-341 
"Great  Righteousness,"  Era,  339 
Greece,  248,  300 

Greek  church,  263,  404,  406,  407;  lan- 
guage, 211,  285;  chorus,  68 
Greene,  D.  C,  259 
Gregorian  calendar,  64,  91,  103,  111, 

112,  409 
Gribble,  Henry,  20 
Griffin,  Professor,  380 


Griffis,  Dr.,  18, 43,  59,  70,  71,73,  75,  99, 
101,  117,  206,208  ,  210,  241,  242,  249, 
252,  256,  257,  276,  341 

"  Grippe,  La,"  10 

Guam,  299 

Guano  deposits,  6 

Gubbins,  J.  H.,  117, 161, 176, 178,  182 

Guilds,  27 

Gulf  Stream,  11 

Gulick,  S.  L.,  89, 117,  304,  328 

Gumma  Prefecture,  Governor  of,  138 

Gunboat,  United  States,  23 

Guncotton,  85 

Gunpowder,  smokeless,  85 


H 

Hachiman,  god  of  war,  90, 

Hachisuka,  Marquis,  188 

Hades,  God  of,  74 

Haga,  261 

Hakodate,  9,  107 

Hakone,  8,  37;  lake,  8 

Hakuchi  era,  370 

Hakuseki 

Ham,  54 

Hamaoka,  39 

Hamath,  46 

Hancock,  H.  I.,  66 

"Hand-Book  for  Japan,"  15 

"Hand-Book  of  Colloquial  Japanese," 

208 
Hand-carts,  31 
Handkerchief  industry,  24 
Hangchau,  China,  297 
Happiness  of  the  people,  79 
Hara,  Mr.,  168 
Harbors,  9 
Hardv,  Thomas,  204 
Hare,  13 

Harris,  Townsend,  106,  107,  117 
Hartshorne,  Miss,  15,  43,  59,  75 
Haru,  Prince,  92,  113,  115,  123,  188, 

211 
Harunobu,  227 
Harvard  University,  307 
"Hatsuse,"  sinking  of,  314 
Hawaii,  3,  7,  35,  299 
Havashi,  Mr. ,  312 


424 


nn)EX 


Hearn,  Lafcadio,  43,  54,  65,  75,  77,  89, 

190,  238,  249 
Hebrew,  285 
Heco,  Joseph,  200 
Heikeutai,  battle  of,  315 
Heine,  Heinrich,  204 
"Herald,"  Kobe,  201 
Herbart,  J.  F.,  205 
"Heroic  Japan,"  117,  158,  283 
Hideyoshi,  91,  99 
Hildreth,  Richard,  101 
Hirooka,  Mrs.  Asa,  186,  187,  402 
Hirose,  Commander,  313 
Hiroshima,  148 
Hirth,  Dr.,  296 

"  Histoire  de  I'Art  du  Japan,"  235 
History  (Old  Japan),  90-101 
I.  Divine  Ages,  94 
II.  Prehistoric  Period,  94-96 

in.  Imperialistic  Period,  96-97 

IV.  Civil  Strife,  97-100 
V.  Tokugawa  Feudalism,  100-101 
History  (New  Japan),  102-117 

I.  Period  of  Seclusion,  104-106 

II.  Period  of  Treaty-Making,  106- 

107 

III.  Period  of  Civil  Commotions, 

107-110 

IV.  Period  of  Reconstruction,  110- 

112 
V.  Period    of    internal    Develop- 
ment, 113-114 
VI.  Period  of  Constitutional  Gov- 
ernment, 114-117 
Greater  Japan,  331-341 
History  and  mythology  outline,  90-92 
"  History  of  Japan,"  101 
"  History  of  Japanese  Literature,"  208, 

232,  236 
"History  of  Japanese  Political  Par- 
ties," 132 
*' History  of  Protestant   Missions  in 

Japan,"  276 
"  History   of  the    Twelve    Japanese 

Buddhist  Sects,"  253 
"  Hitachi  Maru,"  sinking  of,  314 
Hittites,  46 
Hizen  ware,  229 
Hoang-Ho  river,  14 
Hojo  tyranny,  91 ;  family,  98 


Hokkaido,  5, 6, 9, 17,  42,  142, 143, 292, 

347;  see  also  Yezo 
Hokurikudo,  6 
Hokusai,  227 
Holidays,  63-66 
Holland,  37 
Holme,  Charles,  22 
Honda,  y.,  334 
**  Honda  the  Samurai,"  75 
Hondo,  5,  6 

Hongkong,  33,  35,  37,  355 
Honolulu,  3,  33 
Horse-cars,  31,  34,  281 
Horses,  13,  24     ' 
Hours,  72-73 
House,  E.  H.,  117 
House  of  Commons,  119, 126, 130 
House  of  Peers,  126, 128, 130, 376,  377 
Houses  of  Japanese,  51-53,  284 
Hozumi,  Dr.  N.,  174,  249 
Hugo's  "Les  Misdrables,"  204 
Huish,  Marcus,  22,  222,  229,  236 
Hulbert,  H.  B.,  341 
"Human  Bullets,"  328 
"Hundred  Poems,"  199 
Hyogo,  see  Kobe 


Ice  industry,  24 

"Ichijiku,"  266 

"  Ideals  of  the  East,  The,"  224 

Iga  ware,  229 

li,  Prime  Minister,  assassinated,  107, 

108 
Ikao,  8 
Illinois,  37 
Imari  ware,  229 
Irabrie,  Dr.,  208,  323 
Imitation,  Japanese  ability  for,  41,  85 
Immigration,  335,  338 
Imperial  Court,  278,  296 
Imperial  Diet,  36,   92,  114,  122,  126- 

128,  130,  165,  207,  212,  247,  313 
Imperial  family,  48,  93 
Imperial  Guard,  149 
"  Imperial  Japanese  Navy,  The,"  158 
Imperial  Library,  see  Library' 
Imperial  Rescripts,  212,  398-399 
Imperial  University,  see  University 
Imperialism,  91,  96-97,  101, 118-132 


INDEX 


425 


Imperialistic  period,  90 

Imports,  36,  37, 170,  368 

'•In  the  Mikado's  Service,"  75 

Inagaki,  Mr.,  410 

Inari  Sama,  248 

Incomes,  see  Wages  and  incomes 

Indemnity,  War,  319 

India,  14,  21,  34,  37,  45,  48,  301 

Indigo,  17 

Industrial  and  commercial  Japan,  17- 

28,  39-42,  183,  341 
Industrial  Bank,  38 
"  Industries  of  Japan,  The,"  28,  231, 

235 
Inland  Sea,  10,  267,  287 
Inouye,  Jukichi,  74 
"Intercourse    between     the     United 

States  and  Japan,"  117 
International,  law,  violated  by  Russia, 

317;     Oil     Company,     36;    Postal 

Union,  35 
Invention,  Japanese  ability  for,  41, 85 
Investment,  foreign,  40-42 
Iris,  65,  409,  410 
Iron,  23,  37,  42,  295;    foundries,  286  ; 

workers'  union,  27 
Ise,  shrine  at,  167,  243 
Ishigami,  Dr.,  220 
Ishikari  river,  9 
Ishikawajima,  355 
"  Island  of  Formosa,  The,"  21, 143 
Itagaki,  Count,  119, 131,  402 
Italian,  285 
Ito,  Prince,  40,  120,  131,  132,  332,  336, 

381,  402 
"  Ito, With  Marquis,  in  Korea,"  341 
Iwakura  Embassy,  110, 112 
lyemochi,  Shogun,  108,  109 
lyenaga.  111,  132, 145 
lyenari,  Shogun,  280 
lyeyasu,  Shogun,  91,  99,  100 
lyeyoshi,  Shogun,  105 
Izanagi,  90,  95 
Izanami,  90,  95 
Izumo,  94 ;  ware,  229 


Janes,  158 

"Japan,"  15,  59, 101,  208,  249 


"Japan,  An  Interpretation,"  89 
"Japan:  Its  History,  Arts,  and  Liter- 
ature," 231,  233,  235 
"  Japan  and  America,"  39,  42,  356 
"  Japan  and  her  people,"  15,  43,  59, 

190 
"Japan  and  its  Art,"  236 
"Japan  and  its  Regeneration,"  89, 

249,  276 
"Japan  and  its  Trade,"  28 
"  Japan  and  the  Japanese,"  300 
•'Japan  as  it  Was  and  Is,"  101 
"Japan  Daily  Advertiser,"  201 
"  Japan  Evangelist,"  276 
"Japan  in  History,    Folk-lore,   and 

Art,"  59,  101,  208,  210 
"Japan  in  Transition,"  28,  145,  158 

291 
"  Japan  Mail,"  46,  131,  184,  201,  243, 

296,  350,  370,   376,  383,  404,  410, 

411 
Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company,  34, 

92, 113, 114,  139 
Japan  Society,  London,  Transactions, 

22,  50,  92 
"  Japan  Times,"  24,  130, 131, 188, 201, 

204,  362,  381,  384,  399,  404 
"Japan  To-day,"  15,  43,  158,  261 
"Japan  Tract  Society,"  266 
"Japan  Year  Book,"  28,  43 
"  Japanese  Boy,  A,"  75,  221 
"Japanese  Calendars,"  71,  83 
"Japanese  Education,"  221 
"  Japanese  Epigrams,"  208 
"  Japanese  Fairy  Book,"  70 
"  Japanese  Fairy  Tales,"  70 
"  Japanese  Floral  Calendar,  65 
"Japanese  Girls  and  Women,"   59, 

75,  189,  190,  221 
"Japanese  Homes,"  51,  54 
"Japanese  Illustration,"  235 
"Japanese,    Interior,    A,"   59,    190, 

221 
"  Japanese  Legal  Seal,  The,"  174 
"Japanese   Life  in  [Town  and  Coun- 
try," 59,  75,  89,  261 
"Japanese  Nation,"  341 
"Japanese  Odes,"  236 
"Japanese  Physical  Training,"  66 
"Japanese  Plays,"  68 


426 


INDEX 


"Japanese  Plays  and  Playfellows," 
68 

"Japanese  Rule  in  Formosa,"  145 

"  Japanese  Wood-cutting  and  Wood- 
cut Printing,"  235 

"  Japanese  Wood  Engravings,"  235 

Java,  45 ;  Javanese,  45 

Jevon's  "Money,"  206 

Ji  sect,  254 

Jimmu  Tenno,  Emperor,  63,  90,  93, 
95,  121 

"  Jingles  from  Japan,"  83 

Jingoro,  Hidari,  228 

Jingu,  Empress,  90,  95,  96 

Jinrikisha,  31,  32,  281 

"  Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan,"  15,  20, 
43,  56,  123,  236 

"  Jinrikisha  men,  32,  203 

Jodo  sect,  253,  255 

Journalism,  200-202 

Judges,  163-165 

Julian,  248 

Jumin,  see  Resident 

Justice,  160 

K 

Kaga  ware,  229 

Kagi,  Formosa,  398 

Kago,  30 

Kagoshima,  32,  107,  108 

"  Kaigai  Shimbun,"  200 

Kaiping,  313 

Kaiyuan,  317 

Kajima,  186 

Kamimura,  Admiral,  314,  316 

Knnazawa,  215 

Kaneko,  Baron,  120,  139,  307 

Kanin,  Prince,  278 

Kansas  City,  37 

Karuizawa,  8 

Kataoka,  Mr.,  274 

Katayama  Sea,  28 

Kato,"  Baron,  402 

Katsura,  Prime  Minister,  324 ;  ministry, 

331,  332,  336-338,  340 
Kawakami,  K.  K.,  132,  341 
Kawamura,  Count  and  Countess,  123 
Kawasaki,  341 
Kegon  waterfall,  9 


Keiki,  Shogun  ,  108, 109 

Keio-gijiku,  215 

Kelung,  Formosa,  412,  413 

Kenkwai,  135-138 

Kennau,  George,  328 

Kenzan  ware,  228 

"  Keramic  Art  of  Japan,"  235 

Keramic  wares,  228 

Kii,  9 

Kikuchi,  Dr.,  221 

Kimotsuki,  Admiral,  291 

Kinchow,  313 

Kindergartens,  210,  213,  214,  269,  403 

Kingsley  Hall,  28 

"  Kinse  Shiriaku,"  117 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  204 

Kirby,  E.  C,  341 

Kiso  river,  9 

Kitakami  river,  9 

Kitasato,  Dr.,  10,  220 

Kites,  66 

Kiyomori,  98 

Knapp,  A.  M.,  59,  89,  101,  132,  208, 
249 

Knight,  283 

Knox,  G.  W.,  59,  75,  89,  249,  261, 
304 

Kobe,  2,  9,  33, 110,  201,  355,  364 

"Kobe  Herald,"  407 

Koch,  Dr.,  220 

Kodama,  Baron,  220,  321 

Koike,  Major,  381 

Kojiki,  241 

Kojimachi  Ku,  139 

Kokaku,  Emperor,  278 

"  Kokumin  Shimbun,"  335 

Komagatake,  8 

Komatsu  H.,  Emperor,  99 

Komei,  Emperor,  64,  108,  109,  122 

Komin,  see  Citizen 

Komura,  Baron,  318 

Korea,  4,  5,  7,  14,  32,  34,  90,  91,  95, 
96,  99,  111,  154,  157,  224,  237,  252, 
255,  292,  294,  2m,  331;  Japanese 
influence  in,  294;  Russia  in,  309; 
convention  with  Japan,  332;  agree- 
ment with  Japan,  333;  annexed, 
337;  Supreme  Court  in,  334; 
Koreans,  85;  students,  341 

"  Korea  and  Her  Neighbors,"  341 


INDEX 


427 


"Korean  Sketches,"  341 
"Korea  in  Transition,"  341 
"Korea,  Tlie  Passing  of,"  341 
"Korea,  The  Tragedy  of,"  341 
"  Korea,  With  Marquis  Ito  in,"  341 

See  also  "  Corea  the   Hermit  Na- 
tion," 341 
Koriusai,  227 

Korsakoff  Harbor,  Sakhalin,  315 
Kublai  Khan,  98 
Kuchinotsu,  9 
Kumamoto,  32,  149,  215 
Kure,  150,  355 
Kuriharaa,  102 

Kurile  Islands,  5,  6,  12,  44,  105,  111 
Kuroki,  General,  313,  315 
Kuropatkin,  General,  313,  315 
Kuro  Shio  (Black  Stream),  11 
Kurozumi-kyo,  259 
Kusatsu,  8 
Kusunoki,  91,  98 
Kyonaga,  227 
Kyoto,  19,  91,  97,  109,  215,  230,  278, 

280,  282,  350 
Kyoto  ware,  229 
Kvowa  era,  277 
Kvushiu,  5,  9,  10,  12,  14,  42,  45,  95, 

292 


Labor  unions,  27,  28 

"Labor  World,"  28 

Lacquer  trees,  12;  lacquer  work,  24; 
lacquering,  230-231 

Ladd,  George  T.,  87,  341 

"  Ladoga  "  (American),  105 

La  Farge,  John,  236 

Lakes,  8 

Lamps,  298 

Land,  arable,  350,  351 ;  foreign  owner- 
ship of,  170,  171 

•'Land  of  the  Morning,"  109 

Landscape-gardening,  54,  234 

"  Landscape-Gardening  in  Japan," 
54,  236 

Lange,  Dr.,  208 

Language,  191-198,  206,  207,  232 

Lanman,  Chas.,  117 

Latin,  211,  285 


Latitude,  5 

"Lawrence"  (American),  105 

Laws,  96,  137 

Lay,  A.  H.,  132,  376,  380 

Lead,  23 

Legal  Japan,  159-174 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  A.,  28,  158 

Lespedeza,  395 

Lewis,  R.  E.,  221 

Liaotung  Peninsula,  307,  308 

Liaoj^ang,  313,  315 

Library,    Imperial,    203,    220;    Max 

Muller,  220 
"Life  of  Sir  Harry  Parkes,"  303 
Light-houses,  91,  no 
Ligneul,  L'Abbd,  391 
Literary  class,  48 
Literature,  70,  100,  198-208 
Lithography,  227 
Living  expenses,  26,  27,  358-360 
Lizards,  13 
Lloyd,  Prof.,  15,  59,  75,  89,  158,  174, 

190,  221,  259,  261 
Loans,  war,  313 
Local  self-government,  113,  114,  116, 

120,  133-145 
Locomotives,  37 
London,  341 

Longford,  J.  IL,  101,  174 
Lonholm,  Dr.,  161 
Loo  Choo  (Ryukyu)  Islands,  5,  12,  34, 

92,  105,  113 
Loquats,  19,  351 
Loti,  Pierre,  77 

"  Lotos-Time  in  Japan,"  15,  59,  89 
Lotus,  65,  410 
Lotze,  R.  H.,  87 
Louisiana,  5 
Lowell,  Percival,   26,  43,  50,  75,  89, 

195,  223,  239,  249, 257 
Loyalty,  87 

Lucky  and  unlucky  days,  71-75 
Lumber,  24 
Lunar  calendar,  64 
Lutherans,  264 


M 


MacCauley,  Clay,  199 
McClatchie,T.  R.,  68 


428 


INDEX 


McCormick,  Frederick,  328 

McDonald,  Roland,  105,  106 

McKenzie,  F.  A.,  341 

Mackay,  Dr.,  276 

Maclay,  A.  C,  75 

Magazines,  202,  285 

"Magna  Charta  of  Japanese  liberty," 

see  Constitution 
Maize,  19 
Maizuru,  150 
MakaroflE,  Admiral,  314 
"Maker  of  the  New  Orient,  A,"  276 
Malays,  45,  46,  95 
Manchoo  Court,  301 
Manchuria,  China,  30,  32,  295,  308- 

310,  313,  331 
Manila,  33,  35 
Manners,  see  Customs 
Manufacturing  plants,  286 
"  Many oshiu,"  407 
Maple*  65,  408,  409 
Marcus  Island,  6 
"Mariner"  (British),  105 
Marriage,  61,  62,  178-182 
Masamune,  230 
Mason,  W.  B.,  15 
Masujima,  Dr.,  169,  170,  174 
Match  industry,  24,  37,  298 
Matsukata,  Count,  128 
Matsumai,  Yezo,  105 
"Matthew  Calbraith  Perry,"  117 
Matting,  37 

"Mayors  of  the  Palace,"  98,  278 
Mechanics,  283 ;  wages  of,  26,  358-360 
Megata,  Mr.,  351 
Meiji  era,  91,  277,  339 
Melons,  19 
Memorial  Day,  65 
Men-of-war,  American,  23 
Mercantile  Marine,  384 
"Mcrcator"  (American),  105 
Merchants,  48,  82,  283 
Meredith,  George,  204 
Merovingians,  Japanese,  98 
Metal  work,  24,  229-230 
Meteorological  table,  346 
Methodist  Publishing  House,  266,  276 
Methodists,  264,  272,  334,  404,  405 
Michi,  Prince,  123 
Migrations,  95 


"Mikado's  Empire,  The,"  43,  66,  71, 
206 

Military  class,  48 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  380 

Miller, ,  a  criminal,  165 

Millet,  19,  55 

Milne,  Professor,  15 

Minamoto,  98 

Mining,  23,  294 

Minko,  228 

Minnesota,  5 

Mint,  39,  91,  110,  111 

Miochin  family,  230 

Mission  of  Japan,  the,  289-304 

Mission  schools,  211,  219 

Missionaries,  107,  157,  173,  177,  218, 
245,  263-269,  272,  287 

Missionary  Conference,  First,  110;  at 
Osaka,  92,  113;  at  Tokyo,  92, 115; 
at  Yokohama,  91 

Mississippi  valley,  5 

Mitake,  8 

Mitford,  A.  B.  F.,  70,  75,  261 

Mito,  54,  60,  67,  280 

Mito  clan,  100 

Mito,  Prince  of,  149,  286 

"Mito  Yashiki,"  75 

Mitschenko's  cavalry,  315 

Mitsu  Bishi  Company,  23 

Mitsui  Bank,  370 

Miwa,  228 

"Miyako-Dori,"  236 

Miyanoshita,  8 

"Modern  Japanese  Legal  Institu- 
tions," 174 

Moji,  9,  32,  187 

"  Moji  no  Shirube,"  208 

Money,  Table  of,  347-349 ;  in  circula- 
tion, 367;  money-making,  81-82, 
408 

Mongolians,  45 

Monkey,  13 

Morals,  48,  257,  271,  287 

Mormons,  265 

Morning-glory,  65,  410 

Morris,  John,  15,  28,  117,  132,  158, 
208 

Morrison,  Arthur,  235 

"  Morrison  "  Expedition,  105 

Morrison,  Mt.,  8 


INDEX 


429 


Morse,  E.  S.,  51,  54,  235] 

"Moscow  Gazette,"  406 

Mosquitoes,  10 

Mossman,  Samuel,  117 

Mother-in-law,  176 

Mott,  John  R.,  270 

Mounsey,  A.  H.,  117 

Mountains,  8 

Mourning,  62 

Mousseline,  37 

Mukden,  battle  of,  317 

Mulberry  trees,  19 

Munichika,  230 

Munzinger,  Carl,  85 

Muramasa,  230 

Murata  rifle,  149 

Murdock,  James,  101,  276 

Muroran,  9,  150 

Murray,  David,  15,  59,  94,  97,  101, 

132,  263 
"Murray's  Hand-Book,"  12,  15 
"Muscovite  Menace,"  322 
Music,  68,  69,  231,  232 
"  Music  and  Musical  Instruments  of 

Japan,  The,"  236 
Mutsuhito,  Emperor,  108-110, 118, 121, 

122,279;  death  of,  339,  340 
Mvthology,  90, 92-95 ;  history,  outline, 

90-92 

N 

Nachi  waterfall,  9 

Nagasaki,  9,  23,  32,  104-107,  201,  281, 

341,  405,  406 
Nagoya,  21,  148,  230,  364 
Namikawa,  230 
Nanjo,  253 
Nankaido,  6 
Nanshan,  313 

"  Napoleon  of  Japan,"  91,  99 
Nara,  97,  228;  Nara  epoch,  90,  97 
"  Narrative  of  a  Japanese,"  200 
Naruse,  Jinzo,  187,  188,  402 
"Nation,  The,"  132,  134,  145 
National  Assembly,  120 
National  development,  366,  367 
National  exhibition  in  Tokyo,  111 
National  song,  407,  408 
Nature-worship,  45,  79 


Naval  increment,  383,  384 

Navy,  ]26,  147-152 

Nelson,  Lord,  151 

Nemoto,  Mr.,  274 

"  New  Far  East,  The,"  39,  117,  145, 

151, 158 
New  Year's  Day,  61,  64,  75 
New  York  City,  296 
New   York    State    Bar    Association, 

170 
Newchang,  315 
Newspaper,  first,   91,  110,   111,   200; 

newspapers,  200-202,  257,  266,  273, 

285 ;  see  also  specific  names 
Nichiren  sect,  253,  255-256 
Nicolai,  Bishop,  263 
Nietsche's  "  Zarathustra,"  204 
Nightingale,  13 
Niigata,  9,  110 
Niitaka,  8 

Nikko,  8,  9, 185,  228 
Ninigi,  90 
Ninsei  ware,  228 
Nippon  Electric  Company,  38 
Nippon  Yusen    Kwaisha,  see  Japan 

Mail  Steamship  Company 
"Nisshin  Shinjishi,"  200 
Nitobe,  Dr.,  45,  89, 117,  239,  252,  261, 

341 
Nitta,  91,  98 
No  dances,  228,  233 
Nobility,    new    orders    of,    92,    113, 

114 
Nobles'  School,  123,  211 
Nobunaga,  persecutor  of  Buddhists, 

91,99 
Nodzu,  General,  313,  315 
Nogi,  General,  313,  316,  340 
Norimono,  see  Sedan-chair 
Normal  schools,  211,  216,  400 
Norman,  Henry,  56,  57,  69,  152,  158, 

174,  202 
Noss,  Christopher,  208 
"Notes  on  Shippo,"  235 
"  Noto,    an    Unexplored    Corner    of 

Japan,"  43 
Novik,  sinking  of,  315 
Nunobiki  waterfall,  9 
Nuts,  55 
Nuttall's  "Standard  Dictionary,"  205 


430 


INDEX 


Oak  trees,  12 

Oatmeal,  37 

Occidentalization,  69 

"  Occult  Japan,"  249 

Ocean  currents,  11,  14 

Officials,  26,  48 

Ohashi,  Mr.,  220 

Oil,   23,  36,   41,  42;    industry,   364- 

_365 

Ojin,  90,  96 

Okakura,  Kakasu,  117,  224,  235,  304, 
328 

Okayama,  215 

Oku',  General,  313,  315 

Okuma,  Count,  119,  130,  154,  215, 
218,  333,  381,  402 

Olcott,  Colonel,  253 

Omaha,  37 

Omnibup,  34 

Onions,  19 

Onobama,  355 

Onsen,  8 

Obka,  159 

"Open  door,"  310,322 

Opium,  144,  170 

Oranges,  19,  351,  352 

Orchestras,  67-09 

Oregon,  14,  106 

"Orient,  The  Spirit  of  the,"  304 

Oriental  Steamship  Compan}',  23,  35 

"Ornamental  Arts  of  Japan,"  235 

Osaka,  9,  21,  39,  92,  110,  J[48, 149, 186, 
355,364,402,  406;  "Osaka  Asahi 
Shimbun,"  202;  Exhibition,  24, 
356-358 ;  Gas  Company,  36 ;  "  Osaka 
Mainichi  Shimbun,"  202;  Merchant 
Steamship  Company,  34,  295;  Mis- 
sionary Conference,  Proceedings, 
276 ;  Shosen  Kwaisha,  34,  295 

Oshu,  45 

Ota  ware,  229 

^Othello,"  68 

Ouchi,  Mr.,  322 

"  Out  of  the  Far  East,"  190 

Outcasts,  283 ;  admitted  to  citizenship, 
91,  110,  112 

"  Outline  of  the  History  of  Ukiyo-ye, 
An,"  236 


"Outlook,  The,"  309,  328 
Owari  ware,  229 
Oxen,  13 ;  ox-carts,  29,  31 
Oyama,  Marquis,  150,  321 
Ozaki,  Mme.,  70 


Pacific  Ocean,  1-3,  6,  14,  299,  301 
Pack-horses,  29,  31 
"Painters  of  Japan,  the,"  235 
Painting,     225-227 ;    collections      in 

America,  225 
Palanquin,  30 
Palmer,  Frederick,  328 
Pantomime,  68 

Paper-making,  24 ;  mills,  286 
Paper  money,  39 
"  Paradise  of  the  East,"  290 
"Party  Cabinet,"  first,  115 
Paulownia,  409 
Peace,  articles  of,  318-320 
Peace  commissioners,  318;  conference 

by,  318 
"Peace  Preservation  Act,"  113,  114 
Peace  Resolutions,  335 
Peace  Society,  333 
Peach    trees,     13;     blossoms,    410; 

peaches,  19,  351,  352 
Peanuts,  19 
Pears,  19,  351,  352 
Peas,  19,  37 

Peeresses'  School,  188,  211 
Peery,  R.  B.,  15,  89,  249,  276 
Peking,  115,  296,  297,  301 
Penal  Code,  113 
People,  44-59 ;  see  also  Characteristics 

of  the  people 
Perrj',  Commodore,  102, 103, 105-107, 

116;    anniversary    of    treaty,    31^; 

Memorial  Relief  Fund,  314;  expedi- 
tion, 91,  117 
Persimmons,  19,  351 
Pescadores  Islands,  5,  413 
Petroleum,  37,  365 
"  Petropavlovsk,"  sinking  of,  314 
"Phaethon"  (British),  104 
Philippine  Islands,  3, 14,  15,  291,  299 
Phillips,  Fs.  C,  206 
Phoenicia.  300 


INDEX 


431 


Physiographical  advantages,  291 

Physiography,  1-15 

Pickles,  37 

Pickpockets'  guild,  27 

"Pictorial  Arts  of  Japan,  The,"  235 

Piggott,  F.  T.,  22,  236 

Pine,  12,  409,  410 

Pisciculture,  24 

Plague,  10,  413 

Plasterers'  guild,  27 

Plum  trees,  13;  blossoms,  65,  79,  408, 

409,  410;  plums,  19,  351,  352 
Poetry,  192,  198-200,   225,  226,   231, 

232,  407 
Policemen,  162, 163 
"Political  and  Commercial  Reasons 

for  the  Study  of  Chinese,"  296 
"Political    Development     of    Japan 

(1867-1909),  The,"  132 
"Political   Ideas  of   Modem   Japan, 

The,"  132 
Political  parties,  113,  114,  130,  376- 

381 
"  Political  Science  Quarterly,"  145 
Pomegranate,  351 
Population,  7,  366 
Porcelain,  24,  37,  228-229 
Pork,  54 
Port  Arthur,  307,  309,  311,  313,  315, 

316 
Portland,  Oregon,  2 
Ports,  opening  of,  91 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  peace  conference 

at,  318 
Portuguese,  20,  91,  99 
Postage,  letter,  35,  36 
Postal  system,  31,  35,  91,  110,  111; 

postal  savings,  35,  362-364 
Potatoes,  19,  26 

Pottery,  24,228-229;  "Father  of  Pot- 
tery," 229 
Poultry,  24 

"Powers,  Great,"  146,  307,  308 
"  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Study 

of  Japanese  Writing,"  208 
"Preble"  (United  States),  105 
Prefectural  assemblies,  92, 111-114 
Prehistoric  period,  90 
Presbyterians,  264,  272,  404,  403 
Presents,  60 


Press,  freedom  of  the,  92, 115, 116, 201 

Printers'  union,  27 

Prison    system,    165,    166;    officials, 

school  for,  168;  treatment  of  pris- 

soners,  321 
Privy  council,  92,  113,  124 
Professional  schools,  218 
"Progress  of  Japan,  1853-1871,  The," 

117 
Pronunciation,  xvii 
Prophecy,  288 
Proverb,  a  Japanese,  46 
Provinces  and  Prefectures,  345,  347 
Prussian  voting  system,  141 


R 


Radicals,  dissatisfaction  of,  113, 114 

Radish,  19 

Railroad,    first,    91,    110;    fare,  33; 

carriages,  37 ;  engineers'  union,  27 ; 

workmen's  union,  27 
Railroads,  31-33,  282,  294,  333,  360- 

362,  367 
Rainy  seasons,  11 

Ransome,  Stafford,  28, 145,  158,  291 
Rathgen,  Dr.  Karl,  17 
Rats,  10,  13 
"Real  Japan,  The,"  56,  57,  69,  152, 

158,  174,  190,  202 
"Real  Triumph  of  Japan,  The,"  158 
Red  Cross  Society,  188,  269,  270,  280, 

321 
Reform  School,  168 
Reform  work,  271 
Registration,  svstem  of,  168,  169 
Rein,  J.  J.,  15,"  22,  28,  46,  59,  75,  85, 

89,  208,  231,  235,  249 
Religion,  172,  173,  237-276 
''  Religion  in  Japan,  Development  of ," 

249,  261 
Religions,  Bureau  of,  243 
"Religions  of  Japan,  The,"  242,  249, 

257,  276 
Remmon-kyo,  259 
Remsen,  Ira,  205 
Resanoff,  104 
"Rescue  homes,"  168 
Resident  (jumin),  138,  139 
Resources,  41,  42,  340 


432 


INDEX 


Restoration,  108,  110,   118,  144,  210, 

242 
Revolutionary  war,  91 
Rice,  18, 19,  26,  37,  54,  56,  169,  351 
Richardson  affair,  91,  107, 108 
Rifles,  85 
Ritter,  H.,  276 
Rivers,  9 

Roman  Catholic,  264,  404-406 
Roosevelt,  President,  318 
Rosen,  Baron,  318 
Roses,  War  of  the,  99 
Rowing,  66 
"Rurik,"  loss  of,  314 
Russia,  4,  14,  36,  145,  263,  285,  294, 

295;  and  Japan,  299,  300,  307-328 
•'Russia,  The  Tragedy  of,"  328 
Russian  aggressions,  155,  157 
Russian  Church,  406 
Russian  epidemic,  10 
Russian  language,  285 
"  Russo-Japanese  Conflict,  The,"  328 
Russo-Japanese  convention,  333 
Russo-Japanese    war,    307-327,    331, 

332,  336 
Ryukyu  Islands,  see  Loo  Choc  Islands 


Sada,  Empress,  123,  188,  211 

Saga  rebellion,  91,  111 

Saikaido,  6 

Saionji,   Marquis,  402;  cabinet,   332, 

336,  340 
"  Saiseikwai  "  Society,  338 
Sake,  24,  55 
Sakhalin  traded  off  for  Karile  Islands, 

111;  indemnity  from  Russia,  331 
Salisburia,  or  Ginko,  351 
Salt,  23 

Salvation  Army,  168,  264, 271 
Samurai,  or  Knight,  283 
San  Diego,  2,  3 
San  Francisco,  2,  3,  36,  37 
Sanindo,  6 
Sanskrit,  211,  285 
SanyS  Railway  Company,  33 
Sanj'odo,  6 

Sapporo  Agricultural  College,  216 
"Saramang"  (British),  105 


Saseho,  150,  311 

Satin,  37 

Satow,  Sir  Ernest,  22,  117,  241, 249 

Satsuma,  Prince  of,  108 

Satsnma  rebellion,  91,  111 

Satsuma  ware,  229 

Sawyers'  guilds,  27 

Saxons,  93 

Scandinavian  Alliance,  264 

Scherer,  J.  A.:B.,  15,  43, 117, 158,  221, 
261 

Schools,  210-212,  214-218;  statistics, 
399-401;  see  also  Academy  of 
Music,  Fine  Arts  School,  Foreign 
Language  School,  Kindergartens, 
Mission,  Nobles',  Normal,  Peer- 
esses', Professional,  and  Technical 
schools,  Sapporo  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, University  for  Women,  and 
University,  Imperial 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  204 

Scidmore,  Miss  E.  R.,  15, 20,  43,  56, 
75,  123,  236,  328 

"  Scribner's  Monthly',"  87, 132 

Scripture  Union,  271 

Sculptors,  228 

Sea  of  Japan,  battle  of,  318 

Seaman,  Louis  L.,  Major,  158,  328 

Seattle,  Washington,  2,  35,  355 

Seaweed,  55 

Second  Army,  313 

Sedan-chair,  30 

Seidlitz,  235 

Seifu  ware,  228 

Sei-i-Tai-Shogun,  98 

Seismology,  15,  216 

"  Seiyo  Kibun,"  210 

Sekigahara,  91, 100 

Senate,  91,  111,  119 

Sendai,  148,  215,  332 

Seoul,  311,  312 

Seto  ware,  229 

Setonouchi,  see  Inland  Sea 

Setouchi,  see  Inland  Sea 

"  Seven  grasses,"  410 

Seventh-Day  Adventists,  264 

Shaho  River,  battle  of,  315;  skir- 
mishes on,  317 

"  Shakai  Zaashi,"  18 

Shanghai,  China,  298,  356 


INDEX 


433 


Sheep,  13 

Shibata,  Mr.,  323 

Shibusawa,  Baron,  39,  82 

Shigemi,  75,  221 

Shikoku,  5, 10,  12 

Shimada,  Mr.,  274 

Shimoda  107 

Shimonoseki,  and  Straits  of,  32,  91, 
107,  108 

Shin  sect,  253,  255,  256 

Shinano  river,  9 

Shinchiku,  Formosa,  412 

Shingon  sect,  253,  254 

"  Shinshiu,"  255 

Shinto,  48,  50,  62,  68,  94,  177,  224, 
237-249,  250,  251,  254,  259,  260,  288, 
340  ;  periodicals,  203 ;  shrines,  166, 
240,  243,  244;  temples,  65,  238 

"  Shinto :  the  Way  of  the  Gods,"  249 

Shinyeisho,  Formosa,  412 

Shioya,  S.,  75,  221 

Ship-building,  23,  24,  354-356 

Ship-carpenters'  union,  27 

Shippo,  230,  235 

Shirane,  8 

Shirozaemon,  229 

Shizuoka,  280 

Shogunate,  91,  98,  99,  108-110 

Shops,  shopkeepers,  shopping,  25-26 

Shotoku  Taishi,  90,  96 

Shrines,  Bureau  of,  243 

Shunsho,  227 

Siam,  4,  299;  and  Japan,  298,  410-411 

Siberia,  4,  14,  34 

Siberia  railway,  291,  309 

Sick  poor,  relief  of,  338 

Silk,  17,  20,  21,  37,  41;  silkworms, 
20 

Silver,  23,  41,  42 

Simmons,  Dr.,  133 

Simplicity  of  life,  78-81 

Singapore,  355 

Sin-tek,  Formosa,  413 

«  Sketches  of  Tokyo  Life,"  74 

Sleeping-cars,  33 

Smallpox,  10,  220,  413 

Smelt-fishing,  22 
Smoking,  20 
Snakes,  13 
Soap;  37 


Social  evil,  166-168 

Social  settlement,  28 

Socialism,  28 

Society,  classes  of,  48-49,  282,  283 

Soldiers,  30,  82,  283 

"Solomon,  Japanese,"  159 

Soma  ware,  229 

Sone,  Viscount,  337 

*'  Soul  of  the  Far  East,"  26,   50,  89, 

195,  239,  249 
Soups,  55 

South  Pacific  Islands,  45 
Soy,  24,  55 
Spanish,  285 
Spencer,  D.  S.,  404 
Spencer,  Herbert,  206 
Spokane  Falls,  Washington,  37 
Spring,  Japanese,  12 
Springs,  hot,  mineral,  8,  59 
Stage,  31,  34,  281 
"Standard,  The,"  Chicago,  237 
Standard  Oil  Company,  36 
Star  Vega,  Festival  of  the,  64,  65 
Stature  of  Japanese,  47 
Steamboats,  31,  281 
Steam-car,  281 
Steamers,   37;   companies,   34;  lines, 

2,  3 ;  steamships,  286 
Steel,  37 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  204 
Stoicism,  81 
Stonemasons'  guild,  27 
Stores,  see  Shops 
"Story  of  Japan,  The,"  15,   59,   94, 

132,  263 
"  Story  of  Old  Japan,  The,"  101 
Strange,  E.  F.,  235 
Strawberries,  19 
Street-car     conductors,    wages,     26; 

drivers,  26 
Stroessel,  General,  316 
Students'  Standard  Dictionary,  205 
Sugar-raising,  24 
Sugawara,  91 
Suiko,  Empress,  96 
"  Sujin,  the  Civilizer,"  90,  95 
Sulphur,  23 
Sumac  tree,  230 
"  Summary  of  Japanese  Penal  Codes," 

174      ^ 


434 


INDEX 


Summer,  Japanese,  12 
Sunday-school,  National  Association, 

334 
Sunday-school  picnics,  66 
Sun-goddess,  90,  95,  248,  259 
"Sunrise  Kingdom,  The,"  5 
"Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom," 

276 
Superiors,  obedience  to,  49, 50 
Superstitions,  70-75 
"  Superstitious  Japan,"  73 
Suyematsu,  Baron,  120 
Swords,  24,  48,  230 


Tacoma,  Washington,  2 
Taft,  W.  H.,  334 

Taggart's  "Cotton  Spinning,"  205 
Taihoku,  Formosa,  412 
Taikwa  Reformation,  370 
Tainan-fu,  Formosa,  412 
Taine's  "English  Literature,"  206 
Taira  supremacy,  91,  98 
Taisho  Era,  339 
"  Taiyo,"  291,  293,  368 
Takahashi,  K.,  290 
Takahira,  Minister,  318 
Takekoshi,  145 
Take-no-uchi,  90,  96 
Takow,  Formosa,  412,  413 
Takushan,  313 

"  Tales  of  Old  Japan,"  70,  75,  261 
Tamsui,  Formosa,  412 
Tamura,  N.,  61 
Tanners,  48 
••Tariff,  92,  108, 115,  116, 170 

Tartars,  98 ;  armada,  91 
„^Tax,  land,  18,49,  139,  169;  business, 

169;  house,  169,  170;  income,  169 
—Taxation,  48,  142,  150,  169 

Tea,  19,  20,  26, 37, 41,  55;  ceremonial, 

99,  233 
Teachers'  Institutes,  219,  220 
Technical  schools,  211,  216,  400 
Telegraph,  31,  91,  110,  282,  294,  367, 

413 
Telephone,  31,  33,  34,  282,  413 
Telissu,  313 
Temperament,  87-89 


Tempo  era,  370 

Tendai  sect,  253,  254 

Tennis,  66 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  204 

Tenrikyo,  259 

Tenryu-gawa,  river,  9 

Terauchi,  Gen.,  339 

Terry,  Prof.,  161 

Teru,  Prince,  123 

"Text-book  of  Colloquial  Japanese," 
208 

Theatre,  66-68 

Thibet,  301 

"  Things  Japanese,"  161, 199,  256 

Third  Army,  313 

"  30th  year  "  (of  Meiji)  rifle,  149 

Thomson,  Elihu,  205 

"  Three  Provinces,"  310 

Tidal  wave,  115 

"Tidings  from  Japan,"  404 

Tiehling,  occupation  of,  317 

"Time,  Land  of  Approximate,"  83 

Tin,  23 

Tobacco,  17, 19,20;  sale  of,  to  minors, 
prohibited,  271 

Togo,  Admiral,  311,  315,  316,  318 

Tokaido,  6 

Tokonami,  Mr.,  339 

Tokugawa  Dynasty,  91, 100, 101,  110, 
280 

Tokuuo,  235 

Tokvo,  21,  26,  28,  31,  33,  35,  37,  39, 
47,  91,  92,  110,  111,  114,  139,  148, 
149, 166,168, 186,  201,  215-217,  220, 
230,  270,  276,  280,  282,  285,  286, 
322,  334, 336,  360, 361,  364,  370,  402, 
406,  410 

Tokyo  Bay,  314 

Tokyo  Missionary  Conference,  Pro- 
ceedings, 276 

Toledo  blades,  230 

Tolstoi,  Leo,  204 

Tomeoka,  168 

Tomotada,  228 

Tone  river,  9 

Torpedo-boats,  311 

TosandS,  6 

T5yo  Kisen  Kwaisha,  23,  35 

Toyokuni,  227 

Trade  Unions,  27,  28 


INDEX 


435 


Traits,  46-50,  76-80 

Transportation,  travel,  29-43,  281 

Treaties,  new,  92;  with  foreign  na- 
tions, 91;  of -alliance  between  Japan 
and  Korea,  312;  of  commerce  and 
navigation  between  Japan  and  the 
United  States,  385-399;  of  Ports- 
mouth between  Japan  and  Russia, 
331,  333;  new,  with  United  States, 
338 

Treaty-Making,  Period  of,  104,  106- 
107 

Tree  peony,  409 

Trees,  see  names  of  trees 

Trials,  164 

Tri-Religion  Conference,  339 

Troup,  James,  255 

Trusteeship,  system  of,  41 

Turnips,  19 

"Twain,  Mark,"  204 

Twentieth  Century  Japan,  267,  277- 
288 

"203-metre  Hill,"  316 

Type  Foundry,  Tsukiji,  TSkyo,  285, 
286 

Typhoons,  10,  11,  88 

u 

Uchimura,  265,  300 

Uhlhom,  Gerhard,  275 

Uji,  19 

Ukita,  K.,  293 

Um^  Tsuda,  Miss,  186 

"Unabridged  Japanese  English  Dic- 
tionary," 208 

United  States,  2,  3,  7,  14,  36,  37,  85, 
157,  186,  200, 291,  293,  299,  308,  310, 
317,  335,  336,  338;  President  of 
the,  102,  106;  treaties  between,  and 
Japan,  338,  385-399 

Universalists,  264 

University,  Imperial,  23,  91,  165,  166; 
at  Kyoto,  211,  215;  at  Tokyo,  110, 
210,  215,  216,  221 

University  for  Women,  186,  188,  211, 
401-403 

Uraga,  302,  106,  355;  dockyard,  23 

Urami  waterfall,  9 

Uriu,  Admiral,  311,  316 


Utamaro,  227 
Utsumi,  Baron,  402 
Uychara,  G.  E.,  132 
Uyeno,  381 


Vaccination,  413 

Vancouver,  2 

"  Various  impressions,"  45 

Vegetables,  tee  names  of  vegetables 

Vehicles,  30 

"  Verbeck  of  Japan,"  117,  276 

Verestchagin,  death  of,  314 

Vergil,  304 

Vessels,  367 

Vladivostock,  33,   315;  squadron  of, 

314 
Volcanoes,  8 
Von  Siebold,  Dr.,  105 


w 

Wado  era,  370 

Wages  and  incomes,  26,  27,  358-360 

Wakayama,  17 

Walker's  "  Political  Economy,"  206 

War  indemnity,  319,  331 

War,  Russo-Japanese,  307-327 

Warships,  150, 151,  383 

Waseda,  215 

Washington,  14;  D.  C,  157 

Watanabe,  Viscount,  43,  333 

Watson,  304 

Wealth  of  Japan,  369-370 

Weasels,  13 

Weaving,  24 

Webster's  Dictionaries,  205 

Weddings,  see  Marriage 

"Wee  Ones  of  Japan,  The,"  60,  75, 

221 
Weight  and  Measure,  Table  of,  347- 

350 
Weights,   comparative,    of   Japanese 

and  European  men,  47 
Weihaiwei,  battle  of,  150 
Wheat,  19;  cracked,  37 
"  When  I  was  a  Boy  in  Japan,"  75, 

221 
Whistler,  J.  A.  M.,  223 


436 


INDEX 


"White  Peril  in  the  Far  East,  The," 
117,  304,  328 

Wigmore,  Prof.,  132-134,  145,  159, 160 

William  II.  of  Holland,  105 

Willow,  409 

Wine,  56 

Winter,  Japanese,  12 

Wistaria,  65,  409,  410 

"With  Kuroki  in  Manchuria,"  328 

Witnesses,  164 

Witte,  Sergius,  Count,  318 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  ]68,  264,  270,  271 

Women,  175-190,  286;  Japanese  and 
American,  contrasted,  81 ;  legal  po- 
sition of,  178-182;  education  of,  183, 
185, 186,  188,  401-403 ;  employment 
for,  183, 188,  270 

Wool,  37 

Woollen  mills,  286 

World's  Student  Christian  Federation, 
334 

Wrestling,  66;  wrestler's  guild,  27 

Writing,  art  of,  introduced,  92,  94,  96 

Wuchang,  China,  297 


Xavier,  Francis,  91,  99,  262 


Yalu,  battle  of,  150 
Yalu  River,  battle  of,  313 
Yaraada,  117,  158,  283 
Yamagata,  Isoh,  276 
Yamagata,  Marquis,  150,  321 
Yamaguchi,  215 
Yamamoto,  Count,  375,  340 


Yamath,  Yamato,  46 

Yamato-Dake,  Prince,  90,  95 

Yangtze  Kiang  river,  14,  295 

".Yankees  of  the  East,  The,"  28,  43, 
'  56,  66,  123,  132,  174,  190 

Year  Periods,  370-373 

Yedo  (now  Tokyo),  91,  100, 106, 110, 
280,282;  Bay,  102,  104,105 

"Yellow  Peril,"  321 

Yezo,  5,  9,  12,  16,  32,  44,  104,  106, 
110,  162;  see  alto  Hokkaido 

Yinkow,  315 

Yi  Tchi  Yong,  Major-General,  312 

Ybkohama,  2,  3,  9,  14,  28,  91,  107, 
165, 166,  201,  360,  361,  364;  Athletic 
Association,  66;  Specie  Bank,  38, 
170 

Yokosuka,  150 

Yoritomo,  91,  98 

"  Yoshino,"  sinking  of,  314 

Yoshihito,  Emperor,  339 

Yoshitsune,  91,  98 

"  Young  Japan,"  117,221 

Young  Men's  Buddhist  Association, 
256 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
256,  264,  270;  Perry  celebration  in 
Tokyo  rooms  of,  314;  work  at  An- 
tung,  324 ;  providing  teachers,  340 

Young  People's  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor,  265,  271 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, 270 

Yuzu  Nembutsu  sect,  254 


Zen  sect,  253-255 
Zola,  £mile,  204 


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